Psychodynamic Theory

Definition: Psychodynamic theory supports the idea that individual processes occurring internally (e.g., feelings/emotions, thoughts, needs, etc) influence and motivate human behavior. Experiences in childhood are defining moments that ultimately affect how a person's internal processes are constructed and how they operate on a regular basis--some of these activities may occur unconsciously. The theory also states that individuals will likely become overwhelmed by demands that are made from them and create defense mechanisms to avoid becoming bogged down by the demands. 

Application: This theory can be applied to community development work because community developers should work to understand the types of environments in which folks are growing up to better understand their behavior. Understanding the stressors that were present in the community and how that could/did affect their development. It is also a theory that can be applied to understand folks involvement or lack thereof within a program in regards to the level of demands it makes on a person's life. 

Adaptation: This theory can be adapted to other disciplines that are seeking to understand what motivates human behavior. Professionals working in program development would want to consider the issue of creating too many demands for participants. It is also a theory that would probably work best in a therapy setting.

Source:

http://web.augsburg.edu/socialwork/msw/pdfs/cheatsheet.pdf

Knowledge Gap

Definition: The knowledge gap theory discusses the discrepancy between highly and poorly educated individuals. It acknowledges that although information and education is thought to be accessible for all members of society, it is much easier for folks from higher SES backgrounds tend to access different types of knowledge and information than folks from lower SES backgrounds. Also, as a result, people from lower SES backgrounds tend to be less aware of current events, laws/policies, and other valuable types of information. These differences result in folks from higher SES backgrounds having more polished communication and literacy skills while folks form lower SES backgrounds are going to struggle with retaining information.

Application: This theory can be applied to community development work because stakeholders should be aware of education attainment rates in the community they are working with to make sure that the language/vocabulary they are using is accessible when doing outreach and work with community members. I think it would also be important to acknowledge the discrepancy between folks from high and low SES backgrounds and create programs as well as opportunities for children to access higher education. Community developers would also be able to work with adults to improve their communication and literacy skills.

Adaptation: This theory can adapted to other disciplines outside of social work or community development because the knowledge gap should be something that concerns any professional that works within the field of social welfare/public interest. It should be a theory that should be seriously considered in the public administration field because it is a systemic and institutional issue that federal and state policies should be addressing. It goes without saying that professionals in the education field (especially teachers) should not be taking this issue lately, which includes working on eliminating the school to prison pipeline.

Source:
https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Mass%20Media/knowledge_gap/

Theory of Planned Behavior/ Reasoned Action

Definition: The theory of planned behavior/ reasoned action is the idea that a person's behavior is heavily influenced and determined by their attitude towards the behavior/activity. Furthermore, the theory believes that behavior can be predicted by a person's intention as intention is a cognitive manifestation of how prepared someone is to complete a behavior. In addition, the manner in which a person perceives that people they care about are going to react to their behavior has a big influence on whether the behavior/action is carried out or not as well.

Application: This theory can be applied to community development work because social workers/social change agents should be aware of how folks may or may not feel about being involved in the project/organization that is being initiated. How a community will receive the community developer's PODS location is an important consideration, as well as considering what the community's relationship is like with other agencies. As a community developer, you will not only want the community to trust your initiative enough to use its service, but also trust it enough to get involved and have a stake in.

Adaptation: This theory can be adapted to all other disciplines besides social work or community development because assessing what motivates people to complete a behavior/action will increase the success of any initiative being taken. It would be helpful for people who are trying to increase awareness or participation in a cause.

Source: https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Health%20Communication/theory_planned_behavior/

Cognitive Resource Theory

Definition: Intelligence and experience and other cognitive resources are factors in leadership success Application: For example, When leaders are better at planning and decision-making, in order for their plans and decisions to be implemented, they need to tell people what to do, rather than hope they agree with them. This happens in the community when you have dominate personalities in the community that are leaders, and the stakeholders agree many times out of fear. Adaptation: This can happen in all walks of life, especially when you have leaders in a dictator type of system. Having proper leadership styles and a voice in the decision making process should be a part of all groups.  Source: Fiedler, F.E. (1986). The contribution of cognitive resources ot leadership performance. In L. Berkowitz (ed), Advances in experimental social psychology. NY: Academic Press

Great man theory

Definition: Leaders are born, not made and great leaders will arise when there is a great need. Application: There is not a manual on what it takes to be a good leader, good leaders have taught us over time what it looks like, but many can't explain how to get there. Finding leaders in the community usually isn't very difficult if there are community leaders. The leaders are known and easily accessible. Great leaders are engaged an invested in their teams, orgs and communities. Adaptation: Grooming great men takes time, and the experiences growing up help build great men. Examples of great men to me would be Barack Obama, Bo Schembechler and Martin Luther King Jr. Source: James, W. 2005 [1880]. Great Men and Their Environment. Kila, MT: Kessinger Publishing

Realistic Conflict Theory

Definition: When there is limited resources, then this leads to conflict, prejudice and discrimination between groups who seek that common resource. Once hostility has been aroused, it is very difficult to return to normal relations and an ongoing feud can arise. Application: Limited resources to African Americans and people of color has always been an issue and concern for those communities. Hostility with police and people of power has also been an issue and has began to resurface in our communities today. Educating those in power on this theory could lead to a better understanding on the attitudes of those underprivileged people. Adaptation: Realistic conflict theory is really interesting because you first have to teach those why there are limited resources to certain groups, then they will understand why there is anger and hostility going on. Source: Jackson, J. W. (1993), Realistic group conflict theory: A review and evaluation of the theoretical and empirical literature, Psychological Record, 43-395-413

Non-Verbal Behavior theory

Definition: The communication without words. The face is used a great deal. Hand signals, shrugs, head movements, etc. also are used.  Application: Non verbal behavior is very important in the social work profession, specifically with interpersonal practice. In the community, it is important to be able to read non verbal clues because you may be working with people with different cultures and languages.  Adaptation: Non verbal behavior is used in all walks of life from infants to the elderly. Being able to understand them is more vital than learning to do so because many times when we do non verbal clues it is done subconsciously. Source: Burgoon, J.K. Buller, D.B. and Woodall, W.G. (1996) Nonverbal Communication, New York: McGraw-Hill

Frustration-Aggression Theory

Definition: When people perceive that they are being prevented from achieving a goal, their frustration is likely to turn to aggression. Application: Specifically in the African American communities, this theory is experienced on a large scale and affects many people. Many AA feel as if the gov't and other powers at be have held them back from obtaining the financial freedom to be as successful as others. This leads to crime, violence and eventually some form of incarceration. Adaptation:This can be used in any aspect of life. It happens in the workplace in terms of advancement in the job and how that leads some to have violent blowups in the office or arguments with  coworkers or supervisors.  Source: Barker, R., Dembo, T. and Lewin, K. (1941) Frustration and aggression: An experiment with young children, University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare,18, 1-314

Classical Conditioning

Definition: If a stimulus that results in an emotional response is repeated alongside another stimulus which does not cause an emotional response, eventually the second stimulus will result in the same emotional response. Classical Conditioning is thus ‘learning by association’. Application: Classical conditioning is best used on young people, or those whose minds are in a state of evolution. Many people in the community are already conditioned to a certain way of thinking in terms of oppression and other issues, but the youth in the community can have different experiences by teaching them a better lifestyle Adaptation: Going in the community being able to show them a different lifestyle and ways of thinking can go a long way in changing the mindsets and morale in the community.  Source: Garcia, J. and Koelling, R.A. (1966) Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4, 123

Least Interest Principle theory

Definition: In any relationship, the person who has the least interest in continuing the relationship has the greatest power. Application: This theory is used against the community in most cases. Financial powers and investors can selectively come and go in terms of support and resources for the community. Since they do not live in or are directly affected by the community, they can essentially end the relationship at the end of an agreement. Adaptation: Communities can use this to their advantage when dealing with those investors by continually looking for new opportunities to help better the community members. Not being pigeonholed by investors. Source: Waller, W. W. and Hill, R. (1951) The Family, A Dynamic Interpretation, New York: Warner Books

Minimalist theory

The Minimalist theory of J.M. Carroll is a framework for the design of instruction, especially training materials for computer users. The theory suggests that (1) all learning tasks should be meaningful and self-contained activities, (2) learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible, (3) instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising by increasing the number of active learning activities, (4) training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and recovery and, (5) there should be a close linkage between the training and actual system.

This can applied to social work when doing project planning with community members. Are you valuing their time by giving them clear direction? Are they able to be self-determinant in their learning? These are important factors to consider.

This is related to higher education when thinking about how students are developing. Is what they are given in classrooms meaningful? College students often dread classes because they do not see the application. Educators must work to help students make those connections.

Carroll, J.M. (1998). Minimalism beyond the Nurnberg Funnel. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Social Support

Social Support is associated with how networking helps people cope with stressful events. Besides it can enhance psychological well-being. Social support distinguishes between four types of support (House, 1981). Emotional support is associated with sharing life experiences. It involves the provision of empathy, love, trust and caring. Instrumental support involves the provision of tangible aid and services that directly assist a person in need. It is provided by close friends, colleagues and neighbours. Informational support involves the provision of advice, suggestions, and information that a person can use to address problems. Appraisal support involves the provision of information that is useful for self-evaluation purposes: constructive feedback, affirmation and social comparison.

Social workers should eat, live and breathe this. All of these types of support are critical in providing comprehensive support to communities. Life experiences should lead to services that help support overcoming struggles shared. With whatever programming is done, it should always be evaluated.

I see this in higher education on this campus with the diversity initiatives President Schlissel is implementing. I am hopeful that social support theory is being used in the implementation process. It seems like they are trying to provide a lot of entries for engagement. Will we see if they follow through with it.

Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K. & Lewis, F.M. (2002). Health Behavior and Health Education. Theory, Research and Practice.San Fransisco: Wiley & Sons.

Strategic Contingencies Theory

Definition: Strategic contingencies theory says that Intraorganizational power depends on three factors: problem skills, actor centrality and uniqueness of skill. Application: This theory means if you have the skills and expertise to resolve important problems, then you are going to be in demand. So when working with community members it is important to place members in positions where they can succeed or fit best for the group. Adaptation: As a CO, it is also important to first know the strengths of the people you are working with. Although this could be difficult with a community of like strengths, a good CO will find creative ways to engage all participants and stakeholders involved. Source:  Hickson, D.J., Hinigs, C.R., Lee, C.A., Schneck, R.S., and Pennings, J.M. (1971). A strategic contingencies theory of intra-organizational power. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 216-229

Power Theory

Definition:

The ability to get others to change their behavior even if they do not wish to do so. Power comes from rank, knowledge, resources or even fear. Application:When working with people in the community, it may be difficult to get everyone on the same page and working towards a common goal. Strong leaders have the ability to talk to people and get them to see things differently for the good of all people. Adaptation:This is a gift that not everyone has, and its easier to get through to some people, rather than others. Having power because of rank or status can have a different impact than that based on invoking fear unto someone. Find the one that works best for the people you are working with and use it for a good point. Source: Pfeffer, J. (1992). Managing with power: Politics and influence in organizations. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press

Mood-Congruent Judgment

Definition:

Our judgments are not cold and logical: they are biased by our moods.  Application: A community developer wants to help build community morale by having a festival or event to bring the community together. On the day of the event, the weather was bad and the festival was ruined. The excitement for the event quickly turned into anger and led to a fight between members of the community. The rain changed the mood of the participants and led to anger and fights. Adaptation: This theory could be adapted into the community and other groups by being aware of how simple things like weather, hunger, fatigue can alter your judgement at any given time. Most people tend to feel down or uptight when we are tired, but having the knowledge of how subconsciencously our moods can be changed due to every day common changes. Source:  Isen, A. M., Shalker, T. E., Clark, M., and Karp, L. (1978), Resources required in the construction and reconstruction of conversation, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1-12

Spiral of Silence

The phrase "spiral of silence" actually refers to how people tend to remain silent when they feel that their views are in the minority. The model is based on three premises: 1) people have a "quasi-statistical organ," a sixth-sense if you will, which allows them to know the prevailing public opinion, even without access to polls, 2) people have a fear of isolation and know what behaviors will increase their likelihood of being socially isolated, and 3) people are reticent to express their minority views, primarily out of fear of being isolated.

This is something that a community you enter has been dealing with for years. They may feel silenced by their local government, the police or even the businesses they frequent. As a community developer, it is important that you give them a megaphone of sorts (community participation) and make sure their voice is amplified.

In higher education, students of color often feel this. They do not speak up because they do not want to be the “angry black person” stereotype, so they stay silent. As I hope to enter higher education, I hope to amplify their voices like my mentors have mine.

Glynn, J.C., Hayes, F.A. & Shanahan, J. (1997). “Perceived support for ones opinions sand willingness to speak out: A meta-analysis of survey studies on the ‘spiral of silence’” Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (3):452-463.

Gatekeeping

Gatekeeping - The gatekeeper decides which information will go forward, and which will not. In other words a gatekeeper in a social system decides which of a certain commodity – materials, goods, and information – may enter the system. Important to realize is that gatekeepers are able to control the public’s knowledge of the actual events by letting some stories pass through the system but keeping others out.

As social workers, we are inherently gatekeepers. We decide what information we share and don’t share community members. With that, it is important to keep in my mind if the information you are withholding is harming the community in the long run.

In higher education, student life employees are gatekeepers of a wealth of information. It is up to them to synthesize what their students need the most so that they feel as supported as possible.

White, David Manning. (1964). "The 'Gatekeeper': A Case Study In the Selection of News, In: Lewis A. Dexter / David M. White (Hrsg.): People, Society and Mass Communications. London S. 160 - 172. "

Diffusion of Innovations Theory

Diffusion of Innovations Theory research centers on the conditions which increase or decrease the likelihood that a new idea, product, or practice will be adopted by members of a given culture. Diffusion of innovation theory predicts that media as well as interpersonal contacts provide information and influence opinion and judgment.

This is related to social work in that we must be realize we do not live in a vacuum. There are societal factors that affect how invested people may be in creating change in their community. Do you have a key constituent on your side? That can affect how people perceive you in their community.

This plays out often in policy work. If a certain lawmaker supports a bill, it now has a certain prestige. Without that support, policies go nowhere.

Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th edition). The Free Press. New York.

Coordinated Management of Meaning

The theory of Coordinated Management of Meaning says basically that persons-in-conversation construct their own social realities. Pearce and Cronen (1980) believe that CMM is useful in our everyday lives. People within a social situation first want to understand what is going on and apply rules to figure things out. They act on the basis of their understanding, employing rules to decide what kind of action is appropriate.

This can be associated with community participation. We must allow community member to construct their own meanings and realities. The best way to do this will always be in person, or at least person to person.

This can be applied to intergroup dialogue work. In intergroup dialogues, you allow people to use their experiences to understand how social identities interact in the world. Everyone's an expert at their own experience, so that is used as the basis of “figuring things out.”

Pearce, W. B., & Cronen, V. (1980). Communication, action, and meaning: The creation of social realities. New York: Praeger.

Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is a communication theory adopted from social psychology. The title gives the concept: cognitive is thinking or the mind; and dissonance is inconsistency or conflict. Cognitive dissonance is the psychological conflict from holding two or more incompatible beliefs simultaneously.

This can be applied to community development when working with a community whose traditional structures may hinder the goal you are trying to accomplish in some way. While you value what they believe, you may see how it is holding back what are you trying to do. When that happens, it is important to put your ego to the side and meet the community where they are at.

This happens often as college students develop. They have heard one thing their entire lives, then get to college and learn that what their homogeneous city told them about the world is pretty far off. Educators must realize and help students work through these potentially difficult realizations.

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press