Cognitive Resource Theory

Definition: Intelligence and experience and other cognitive resources are factors in leadership success Application: For example, When leaders are better at planning and decision-making, in order for their plans and decisions to be implemented, they need to tell people what to do, rather than hope they agree with them. This happens in the community when you have dominate personalities in the community that are leaders, and the stakeholders agree many times out of fear. Adaptation: This can happen in all walks of life, especially when you have leaders in a dictator type of system. Having proper leadership styles and a voice in the decision making process should be a part of all groups.  Source: Fiedler, F.E. (1986). The contribution of cognitive resources ot leadership performance. In L. Berkowitz (ed), Advances in experimental social psychology. NY: Academic Press

Great man theory

Definition: Leaders are born, not made and great leaders will arise when there is a great need. Application: There is not a manual on what it takes to be a good leader, good leaders have taught us over time what it looks like, but many can't explain how to get there. Finding leaders in the community usually isn't very difficult if there are community leaders. The leaders are known and easily accessible. Great leaders are engaged an invested in their teams, orgs and communities. Adaptation: Grooming great men takes time, and the experiences growing up help build great men. Examples of great men to me would be Barack Obama, Bo Schembechler and Martin Luther King Jr. Source: James, W. 2005 [1880]. Great Men and Their Environment. Kila, MT: Kessinger Publishing

Realistic Conflict Theory

Definition: When there is limited resources, then this leads to conflict, prejudice and discrimination between groups who seek that common resource. Once hostility has been aroused, it is very difficult to return to normal relations and an ongoing feud can arise. Application: Limited resources to African Americans and people of color has always been an issue and concern for those communities. Hostility with police and people of power has also been an issue and has began to resurface in our communities today. Educating those in power on this theory could lead to a better understanding on the attitudes of those underprivileged people. Adaptation: Realistic conflict theory is really interesting because you first have to teach those why there are limited resources to certain groups, then they will understand why there is anger and hostility going on. Source: Jackson, J. W. (1993), Realistic group conflict theory: A review and evaluation of the theoretical and empirical literature, Psychological Record, 43-395-413

Non-Verbal Behavior theory

Definition: The communication without words. The face is used a great deal. Hand signals, shrugs, head movements, etc. also are used.  Application: Non verbal behavior is very important in the social work profession, specifically with interpersonal practice. In the community, it is important to be able to read non verbal clues because you may be working with people with different cultures and languages.  Adaptation: Non verbal behavior is used in all walks of life from infants to the elderly. Being able to understand them is more vital than learning to do so because many times when we do non verbal clues it is done subconsciously. Source: Burgoon, J.K. Buller, D.B. and Woodall, W.G. (1996) Nonverbal Communication, New York: McGraw-Hill

Frustration-Aggression Theory

Definition: When people perceive that they are being prevented from achieving a goal, their frustration is likely to turn to aggression. Application: Specifically in the African American communities, this theory is experienced on a large scale and affects many people. Many AA feel as if the gov't and other powers at be have held them back from obtaining the financial freedom to be as successful as others. This leads to crime, violence and eventually some form of incarceration. Adaptation:This can be used in any aspect of life. It happens in the workplace in terms of advancement in the job and how that leads some to have violent blowups in the office or arguments with  coworkers or supervisors.  Source: Barker, R., Dembo, T. and Lewin, K. (1941) Frustration and aggression: An experiment with young children, University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare,18, 1-314

Classical Conditioning

Definition: If a stimulus that results in an emotional response is repeated alongside another stimulus which does not cause an emotional response, eventually the second stimulus will result in the same emotional response. Classical Conditioning is thus ‘learning by association’. Application: Classical conditioning is best used on young people, or those whose minds are in a state of evolution. Many people in the community are already conditioned to a certain way of thinking in terms of oppression and other issues, but the youth in the community can have different experiences by teaching them a better lifestyle Adaptation: Going in the community being able to show them a different lifestyle and ways of thinking can go a long way in changing the mindsets and morale in the community.  Source: Garcia, J. and Koelling, R.A. (1966) Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4, 123

Least Interest Principle theory

Definition: In any relationship, the person who has the least interest in continuing the relationship has the greatest power. Application: This theory is used against the community in most cases. Financial powers and investors can selectively come and go in terms of support and resources for the community. Since they do not live in or are directly affected by the community, they can essentially end the relationship at the end of an agreement. Adaptation: Communities can use this to their advantage when dealing with those investors by continually looking for new opportunities to help better the community members. Not being pigeonholed by investors. Source: Waller, W. W. and Hill, R. (1951) The Family, A Dynamic Interpretation, New York: Warner Books

Strategic Contingencies Theory

Definition: Strategic contingencies theory says that Intraorganizational power depends on three factors: problem skills, actor centrality and uniqueness of skill. Application: This theory means if you have the skills and expertise to resolve important problems, then you are going to be in demand. So when working with community members it is important to place members in positions where they can succeed or fit best for the group. Adaptation: As a CO, it is also important to first know the strengths of the people you are working with. Although this could be difficult with a community of like strengths, a good CO will find creative ways to engage all participants and stakeholders involved. Source:  Hickson, D.J., Hinigs, C.R., Lee, C.A., Schneck, R.S., and Pennings, J.M. (1971). A strategic contingencies theory of intra-organizational power. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 216-229

Power Theory

Definition:

The ability to get others to change their behavior even if they do not wish to do so. Power comes from rank, knowledge, resources or even fear. Application:When working with people in the community, it may be difficult to get everyone on the same page and working towards a common goal. Strong leaders have the ability to talk to people and get them to see things differently for the good of all people. Adaptation:This is a gift that not everyone has, and its easier to get through to some people, rather than others. Having power because of rank or status can have a different impact than that based on invoking fear unto someone. Find the one that works best for the people you are working with and use it for a good point. Source: Pfeffer, J. (1992). Managing with power: Politics and influence in organizations. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press

Mood-Congruent Judgment

Definition:

Our judgments are not cold and logical: they are biased by our moods.  Application: A community developer wants to help build community morale by having a festival or event to bring the community together. On the day of the event, the weather was bad and the festival was ruined. The excitement for the event quickly turned into anger and led to a fight between members of the community. The rain changed the mood of the participants and led to anger and fights. Adaptation: This theory could be adapted into the community and other groups by being aware of how simple things like weather, hunger, fatigue can alter your judgement at any given time. Most people tend to feel down or uptight when we are tired, but having the knowledge of how subconsciencously our moods can be changed due to every day common changes. Source:  Isen, A. M., Shalker, T. E., Clark, M., and Karp, L. (1978), Resources required in the construction and reconstruction of conversation, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1-12