Acculturation

Acculturation is an anthropological theory proposed by Kroeber (1948) stating that "acculturation comprises those changes in a culture brought about by another culture and will result in an increased similarity between the two cultures."

Apply: Acculturation can be useful in community development settings when working in a diverse neighborhood or city.  Knowing that there can be major cultural changes when two different cultures meet can be useful as a community developer.  For example, understanding that individualism is common to America, culturally, but not to Burma, culturally, it can be easier to understand that when Burmese refugees arrive in Indiana, they may eventually become less collectivist and more individualistic.  It is also possible the community surrounding the refugees may become more collectivist culturally due to the influence of the other culture. 

Adapt: Acculturation can also be applied to an organizational setting to better understand how two companies, with different organizational cultures, can merge and eventually have increased similarity.  Imagine company A has a relaxed lunch hour while company B requires employees to clock in and out.  After merging, the overall organizational culture will end up resembling one or the other and the cultures will begin to merge in some respects.

Resource: Goldstein, M., King, G., and   Wright, M. (n.d.). Anthropological Theories. The Department of Anthropology at the University of Alabama. http://anthropology.ua.edu/cultures/cultures.php. 

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's 1973 Stages of Moral Development is a theory of moral development that posits there are three levels of morality: Preconventional Morality, Conventional Morality, and Postconventional Morality with each level having two stages.  Preconventional, or Self-Focused, Morality is present in children up to age nine and is defined by obeying rules and avoiding negative consequences.  Conventional, or Other-Focused, Morality is present in children age 9 to adolescence and is characterized by children trying to achieve what is expected by their parents and fulfilling obligations.  Postconventional, or Higher-Focused, Morality is present in adults and is characterized by the understanding of peoples' differing moral opinions and that rules and laws vary from group to group--morality is seen as upholding values of one's own group and culture.

Apply: I think that Kohlberg's theory can be applied to community development practice in situations where multi-generational individuals are working together.  For example, if community members age 10-80 are working together on a community development project, it would be beneficial for participants to be aware that a 10-year-old may not understand that someone being violently arrested for passing a stop sign is viewed as immoral by the adults at the table because they are at a different stage of moral development.

Adapt: Kohlberg's theory can also be useful in a school setting for teachers or school administrators to understand that children at different ages may view what is right or wrong differently.  For example, a 5-year-old may tattle on a fellow student for forgetting her snowshoes at home, thereby getting that student a warning by a teacher.  A 14-year-old might try to help the other student find a way to find other shoes to help the student avoid getting in trouble. The 5-year-old's understanding of the right thing to do is tell the teacher on the other student, whereas the 14-year-old might have parents who taught them to help other students rather than getting them in trouble.

Resource: Heffner, C. (n.d.). Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development. AllPsych. http://allpsych.com/psychology101/moral_development/#.Vja-2rerTIU.

Implicit Bias Theory

Implicit Bias Theory states that there is "bias in judgment and/or behavior that results from subtle cognitive processes (e.g., implicit attitudes and implicit stereotypes) that often operate at a level below conscious awareness and without intentional control" ("Helping Courts Address Implicit Bias", 2012.) 

Apply: Implicit Bias Theory can be applied in a variety of situations. In community development work, it can be utilized when trying to better understand that in a collaborative group setting with folks from different backgrounds, despite education and awareness raising, people still hold implicit biases that often affect their decision-making processes.  It is important for the CD to understand that implicit biases exist and that they can show, even when unintended. It is a good theory to discuss at a group meeting so that everyone has an understanding of what it is and how it can show and that it affects folks with good intentions, as well.

Adapt: The theory of implicit bias can also be seen very seriously with law enforcement.  In online tests and experiments, cops who may not be intentionally racist are more likely to shoot a black character with no gun than a white character with a gun, due to implicit biases and implicit stereotypes regarding the black males portrayed in the examples. To be clear, this is found with all people, not only police officers. Still, it is very important to be aware that these implicit biases exist.

Source: Helping Courts Address Implicit Bias. (2012). The National Center for State Courts. http://www.ncsc.org/~/media/Files/PDF/Topics/Gender%20and%20Racial%20Fairness/Implicit%20Bias%20FAQs%20rev.ashx. 

System Justification Theory

System Justification Theory argues that (a) there is a general ideological motive to justify the
existing social order, (b) this motive is at least partially responsible for the internalization
of inferiority among members of disadvantaged groups, (c) it is observed most readily at
an implicit, nonconscious level of awareness and (d) paradoxically, it is sometimes
strongest among those who are most harmed by the status quo (Jost, Banaji, & Nosek, 2004).

Apply: Social Justification Theory can be applied to community development work when we think about certain CD projects and how some people are indifferent (or appear to be indifferent) or even resistant to change.  While there are, of course, other explanations for indifference and resistance, this theory is useful in thinking about how people who are negatively effected by the status quo might still resist change.  I could see this becoming especially apparent when raising critical consciousness.

Adapt: I see this all of the time with some of my family members who are low-income, previously middle-class, and white.  Despite being negatively effected by the status quo (i.e. low minimum wages, city/county policy changes affecting employment, state refusal to adopt ACA programming, etc.), they still argue that any progressive change is bad....because "it's just wrong."


Source: Jost, J, Banaji, M., and Nosek, B. (2004). A Decade of System Justification Theory: Accumulated Evidence of Conscious and Unconscious Bolstering of the Status Quo. Political Psychology, Vol. 25, No. 6,

Attribution Theory

Attribution Theory is a Social Psychology theory that "deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events.  It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal judgment” (Fiske, & Taylor, 1991). Heider (1958) described two types of attribution: 1) internal attributions, such as personality traits and 2) external attributions, such as situational or environmental causes
Apply: One key way I see this theory applied to community development is when a community developer looks at a neighborhood and attempts to determine why things as they are. For example, when looking at at a community concern of prostitution, one could internally attribute it and claim that the prostitute is a bad person and did it to herself.  If attributing externally, one might claim that there is prostitution in the neighborhood because there are high rates of poverty and unemployment.  How someone attributes community concerns can drastically change what is looked to for practices and programming within a community development initiative. 
Adapt: This can be seen all of the time when there are discussions and debates about our safety nets.  For example, arguments regarding SNAP always end up revolving around whether or not a person is individually doing enough to get themselves out of poverty--are they working? are they doing drugs? do they have any money in savings? Rather than internally attributing it, it could be attributed externally to be viewed as a systemic, environmental problem that has little to do with individual characteristics or effort. 

Source: Attribution Theory. SimplyPsychology. 2010. http://www.simplypsychology.org/attribution-theory.html. 

Community Based Participatory Research (CBPR)

Community Based Participatory Research (CBPR) is  a theory of and "collaborative approach to research that equitably involves all partners in the research process and recognizes the unique strengths that each brings. CBPR begins with a research topic of importance to the community, has the aim of combining knowledge with action and achieving social change to improve health outcomes and eliminate health disparities." (WK Kellogg Foundation Community Health Scholars Program).


Apply: CBPR can and should be used in community development projects. Before embarking on a community development initiative, CD staff should start by collaborating with community members to research something identified by the community.  From there, staff can ensure that the research can combine with action, in whatever form that may take.  

Adapt: CBPR can also be utilized in other settings, such as a new business opening up. For example, if a grocery store was looking to open in a neighborhood, it would be of benefit to both the community and the store owner to collaboratively research with neighborhood residents.  They may discover a way to open a store that would best meet the wants and needs of the neighborhood, perhaps even incorporating socially just practices (i.e. hiring folks from the neighborhood vs. from outside, providing higher-quality foods, etc.)

Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)

Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) is a theory and strategy for " sustainable community-driven development" (ABCD Institute).  It suggests that macro community development can be initiated and implemented by residents who recognize individual assets and strengths and put them to use to make positive change.

Apply: ABCD can be used in community development projects even if the project is not initiated by residents.  Community developers can recognize the inherent strengths and assets that lie within residents and can promote or help residents realize their strengths and full potential to become community developers themselves.  By helping bring these strengths to light, the community developer is developing the individual members of the community who can then work together at a more macro level.

Adapt: The theory of using individual assets and strengths to complete larger macro goals is applied in many settings besides community development.  For example, when putting together a team to work on a school project, you figure out the assets and strengths of each team member to see how each person can contribute to the larger project.  One person might be better at reading through research articles, another at making PowerPoint presentations, and another at writing a report.  Together, their strengths combine to finish a more macro project.


Source: ABCD Institute. What is Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)? n.d. ABCD Institute. 
http://www.abcdinstitute.org/docs/What%20isAssetBasedCommunityDevelopment(1).pdf

Maslow's Theory of Motivation(Hierarchy of Needs)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs represents a theory of human motivation proposed by Abraham Maslow in the 1960s which states that humans possess different levels of needs with corresponding motivations, starting with most immediate needs: physiological (oxygen, water, food, etc.) to safety (security, freedom from fear, etc.), social (belongingness, love, etc.), esteem (achievement, confidence, etc.), and self-actualization (reaching one's potential).

Apply: The Hierarchy of Needs is useful in thinking about community development because it can provide an introductory understanding to where the developer needs to start.  For example, if a developer enters a neighborhood trying to organize residents around creating colorful neighborhood signs (which may, indeed, create a greater sense of belongingness), residents may be focused on the fact that it is unsafe for their children to walk back and forth to school and not really care about the signs.  The safety concern, which is higher on Maslow's hierarchy than is belongingness, trumps resident concern for neighborhood signs, even if they might be interested in it because they have more important motivations at the moment.

Adapt: This theory can also be applied to teachers in educational settings.  If they have a student who is coming to school regularly having not completed homework or not attempting to earn A's and B's in school (esteem), they may want to look at other, more immediately important levels of the hierarchy. For example, does the student have food and a roof over their head (physiological/safety)?  If not, they may not be 'motivated' to be successful in school if they do not have food to eat in the morning.


Source: Schuck, A. & D. Rosenbaum (2006).  Promoting Safe and Healthy Neighborhoods: What Research Tells Us about Intervention.  In K. Fulbright-Anderson and P. Auspos (Eds.), Community Change: Theories, Practice, and Evidence. The Aspen Institute. 

Social Cohesion

Social Cohesion refers to "the extent to which residents share a sense of community, an attraction-to-place, patterns of regular interaction among themselves, and a sense of trust and mutuality" (Fulbright-Anderson and Auspos).

Apply: When a community developer is entering a community, it is important they recognize and understand the strength of the community's social cohesion.  If there is a strong sense of cohesion among residents, the community developer would start their initiative in a different place than they would if there was a weak sense of cohesion.  With a weak sense of cohesion, they would need to first focus on bringing neighborhood folks together to build greater cohesion.  Further, the strength of the cohesion will affect resident involvement and participation, and developers would have more work to do to gain group participation and, likely, support.

Adapt: If a business is looking to open up shop in a community, it would be in their best interest to gauge the sense of social cohesion in the community.  For example, if a payday loan shop wants to open a branch in a neighborhood that has a strong sense of social cohesion, residents are more likely to fight back against such a place being opened.  On the other hand, if they do not have a strong sense of social cohesion, it might be easier for the payday loan branch to open because there is less potential for a cohesive agenda or organized action.


Source: Fulbright-Anderson, K (2006).  Community Change: Implications for Complex Community Initiatives.  In K. Fulbright-Anderson and P. Auspos (Eds.), Community Change: Theories, Practice, and Evidence. The Aspen Institute. 

Ladder of Participation

Ladder of Participation: The 'Ladder of Participation' is a theory of citizen participation proposed by Sherry Arnstein in 1969. It states that there are 8 'rungs' on the ladder of participation that illustrate resident involvement in institutional programming, ranging from 'manipulation' to 'citizen control.'

Apply: The Ladder of Participation can be used in community development work when determining what type of and how much control program staff will give to participants. For example, when an organization decides to initiate a community development project, they have to determine what roles staff will have and what roles residents will have.  They could decide to give complete control to citizens (citizen control, 8th rung) and merely provide funding, or they could just give residents a head's up (inform, 3rd rung) when they are making decisions about programming.

Adapt: This model can also be utilized by government offices.  For example, if a city is embarking on an initiative to increase access to entrepreneurial endeavors for immigrants, they have to decide who will be involved in the project.  They could make decisions about programming without talking to immigrants (rung: manipulate or therapy) or they could incorporate immigrants and immigrant-led organizations in the process (rung: partnership or delegated power).  How they go about deciding on participatory roles for immigrants will change how the initiative is received and, ultimately, whether or not it is successful.

Sources: Arnstein, Sherry. (1969). A Ladder of Citizen Participation. AIP Journal, July 1969.