Functionalist Theory

Theory- Functionalist Theory

Definition- Functionalism is a macro theory which posits that interrelated part of society (social institutions) work together to meet the needs of individuals in that society.

Apply- Functionalism looks at the ways that parts of society work together, thus it is important to consider when looking at a community faced with intersectional oppression. Functionalism helps us to consider the way multiple institutions like education, family, health care or religion interact to form an individual or community. Analyzing these relationships is necessary for identify power player and creating a plan of action around who or what institutions to target for change.

Adapt- Functionalism is also critical to government work. It is important to acknowledge the way that multiple systems function together in order to decide where resources are needed in a community. For example, if there is a strong religious institution who provides social services, perhaps the government entity could work with the preexisting community entity to reach members of the community.

Keirns, N. (n.d.). Introduction to sociology 2e (Second ed.).

Feminism

Theory- Feminism

Definition- Refers to the idea that all genders should be treated equally. Feminism is “the belief that women are full human beings capable of participation and leadership in the full range of human activities- intellectual, political, social, sexual, spiritual and economic” (Cleage 1993, 28).

Apply- While there are many aspects to feminism and other theories that have developed from feminism, overall all this theory can help people organize on the basis of identity. Feminism can be used to identify issues people face as systemic, not simply individual problems.  By identifying underlying systemic issues, people may be more motivated to work together and create change.    

Adapt- This theory could also be used in the business world. Research shows that women are paid less than men on average. Recognizing that this issue exists outside the confines of an individual salary could help women work together to decrease the wage gap. 

Cleage, P. (1993). Deals with the Devil: And other reasons to riot. New York: Ballantine Books.

Black Feminism

Theory- Black Feminism

Definition- Black Feminism builds on the concept of feminism and “positions African American women to examine how the particular constellation of issues affecting black women in the United States are part of issues of women's emancipation struggles globally” (Collins 1996, p12).The term is used both interchangeably with or in contrast to Womanism depending on the source.

Collins, P. H. (1996). What's in a name? womanism, black feminism, and beyond. The Black Scholar, 26(1), 9. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/229836480?accountid=14667

Apply- Black Feminism specifically addresses the intersection of race and gender that is invisibilized by the white-washing of feminism. Black Feminism and Womanism may hold more relevance to communities of color than traditional Feminist theories when embarking on a community change effort as these theories acknowledge that the experience of black women and women of color is different than that of white women.

Adapt- Black Feminism could be used in the field of economics. The specific emphasis on global struggles could add to conversations about globalization and the global economy by bringing in a less colonial perspective than, for instance, neoliberalism. 

Collins, P. H. (1996). What's in a name? womanism, black feminism, and beyond. The Black Scholar, 26(1), 9. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/229836480?accountid=14667

Ecofeminism

Definition: Ecofeminism brings feminist concerns to human-nature relationships and establishes the link between exploiting the earth and women. By drawing from both dynamic systems theory and deep ecology, it rejects the human-centered systems we live in and focuses on feeling, intuition, and empathy.

Source: Robbins, S., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. (2012). Contemporary human behavior theory: A critical perspective for social work (3rd ed., p. 45). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Apply: Our material economy is linear, from extraction to production to distribution to consumption to disposal. By viewing our natural world this way, we also view other persons in this way. By working towards making the materials economy circular, we value the parts in the process. We do this through options such as Zero Waste Solutions for our waste, which lessens the burden of exploiting other countries for inexpensive labor.

Adapt: By challenging current recycling programs to include waste, communities begin to build environmental consciousness. This can lead to large scale changes in the way we handle transportation, energy production, and agriculture.

Epigenetics

Define: This theory says that the social environment changes a person's genes, and these changes can be passed onto offspring. Social factors like chronic poverty and racism can literally alter the genes, and thus, phenotype, or what is expressed.

Combs-Orme, T. (2013). Epigenetics and the social work imperative. Social Work, 58(1), 23+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.proxy.lib.umich.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA318901328&v=2.1&u=lom_umichanna&it=r&p=HRCA&asid=f1ca5fe0745267f377844290fcbb8a2a

Apply: If genes, and by extension, human potential, can be changed by factors such as poverty, the implications for community development/social work could be great. It would mean that we have an even greater responsibility to work at changing the environment that allows societal ills to exist. At first I thought of this as more of a clinical theory, working to change how much social support individuals get so that they have healthy genes to pass onto their children. But now, I see it as a more macro theory, and for community developers, it just means that whatever community we are seeking to change, always remembering that we are ultimately working to benefit individuals (perhaps even down to a genetic level) by trying to improve the places they live, play, and work in.

Adapt: I think of the public health field when I think of this theory. Maybe you are studying a community and you observe that there are higher than average rates of stress-related illness. You could do a longitudinal study to see if children of parents with stress-related illness also end up with such ailments, and then see if there is a genetic component involved at various points during the lifetime of the child. (And maybe then you could figure out a way to change the environment so that the stress-related illness that altered genes can be reversed, and no longer passed on.)

Selective Withdrawal

Define: This is a theory of political participation that says that as people age, they "adjust the level and nature of their political activity on the basis not only of personal but also of contextual-situational factors (e.g. social pressure, health condition, leisure time, etc.)"

Lamprianou, I. (2013). Contemporary political participation research: A critical assessment. Democracy in Transition. Retrieved from  
https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=f7uOCicAAAAJ&citation_for_view=f7uOCicAAAAJ:hFOr9nPyWt4C.
Apply: Let's say you are working in a community where voter turnout of people over age 60 is very low, and you want to inspire and enable this age demographic to get out and vote. (Note this theory doesn't necessarily say older folks have less participation, it just says that the levels adjust.) But in this case, if you are trying to get people over age 60 to vote, it would be wise to look at the contextual-situational factors that may be preventing them from getting out and voting, so you can adjust those factors and make it easier for them to vote. For example, if lack of ability to drive is preventing them from leaving the house, you could arrange transportation to get them to their polling place.

Adapt: In the field of education, keeping note that students' levels of political participation are changing as they age (hopefully getting higher) you may encourage an upward adjustment by informing students of important pieces of legislation for them to consider, educating about the right to vote, and informing about ways they can engage in politics (letter writing, rallies, etc.)

Hunkering Down theory

Define: Diversity in communities is associated with distrust, and this equates to "lower rates of civic engagement and social cohesion." People "hunker down" in their homes and do not participate in their communities as much if the community is more diverse.

Walker, E., & Stepick, L. (2014). Strength in diversity? Group heterogeneity in the mobilization of grassroots organizations. Sociology Compass, 8(7). doi: 10.1111/soc4.12191. 

Apply: This was a disheartening theory to read at first, because it implies diversity does not lead to citizen participation that we as community developers would hope for (though the source also says there is conflicting evidence for this theory.) But if we are applying this theory, it would mean that, for example, if you are working with a group of inner city teens to bring art to a city, you would probably want only to invite inner city teens to the community development meetings. There would be less social cohesion, and perhaps outcomes would not be as successful if say, you brought others like senior citizens into the meetings. The feeling of engagement and participation the teens feel with the project and with their city might cease if people who are not like them (senior citizens) begin to get involved.

Adapt:  It's difficult to consider where diversity would be a "bad" thing, because "diversity" does not mean only one thing; there are hundreds of things about a person that can make them different from others. At my internship, Cancer Support Community, diversity would not be good in all of our group sessions because those who have lost someone to cancer and those who have cancer themselves face very different challenges. So if you are a program director at a business or agency, you would want to consider creating guidelines of who can join what programs based on certain characteristics they have, so that the whole group benefits from a mutual feeling of understanding.

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Acculturation

Acculturation is an anthropological theory proposed by Kroeber (1948) stating that "acculturation comprises those changes in a culture brought about by another culture and will result in an increased similarity between the two cultures."

Apply: Acculturation can be useful in community development settings when working in a diverse neighborhood or city.  Knowing that there can be major cultural changes when two different cultures meet can be useful as a community developer.  For example, understanding that individualism is common to America, culturally, but not to Burma, culturally, it can be easier to understand that when Burmese refugees arrive in Indiana, they may eventually become less collectivist and more individualistic.  It is also possible the community surrounding the refugees may become more collectivist culturally due to the influence of the other culture. 

Adapt: Acculturation can also be applied to an organizational setting to better understand how two companies, with different organizational cultures, can merge and eventually have increased similarity.  Imagine company A has a relaxed lunch hour while company B requires employees to clock in and out.  After merging, the overall organizational culture will end up resembling one or the other and the cultures will begin to merge in some respects.

Resource: Goldstein, M., King, G., and   Wright, M. (n.d.). Anthropological Theories. The Department of Anthropology at the University of Alabama. http://anthropology.ua.edu/cultures/cultures.php. 

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's 1973 Stages of Moral Development is a theory of moral development that posits there are three levels of morality: Preconventional Morality, Conventional Morality, and Postconventional Morality with each level having two stages.  Preconventional, or Self-Focused, Morality is present in children up to age nine and is defined by obeying rules and avoiding negative consequences.  Conventional, or Other-Focused, Morality is present in children age 9 to adolescence and is characterized by children trying to achieve what is expected by their parents and fulfilling obligations.  Postconventional, or Higher-Focused, Morality is present in adults and is characterized by the understanding of peoples' differing moral opinions and that rules and laws vary from group to group--morality is seen as upholding values of one's own group and culture.

Apply: I think that Kohlberg's theory can be applied to community development practice in situations where multi-generational individuals are working together.  For example, if community members age 10-80 are working together on a community development project, it would be beneficial for participants to be aware that a 10-year-old may not understand that someone being violently arrested for passing a stop sign is viewed as immoral by the adults at the table because they are at a different stage of moral development.

Adapt: Kohlberg's theory can also be useful in a school setting for teachers or school administrators to understand that children at different ages may view what is right or wrong differently.  For example, a 5-year-old may tattle on a fellow student for forgetting her snowshoes at home, thereby getting that student a warning by a teacher.  A 14-year-old might try to help the other student find a way to find other shoes to help the student avoid getting in trouble. The 5-year-old's understanding of the right thing to do is tell the teacher on the other student, whereas the 14-year-old might have parents who taught them to help other students rather than getting them in trouble.

Resource: Heffner, C. (n.d.). Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development. AllPsych. http://allpsych.com/psychology101/moral_development/#.Vja-2rerTIU.