Definition: "Social exchange theory is based on a central premise that the exchange of social and material resources in a fundamental form of human interaction...interaction patterns are shaped by power relationships between individuals, and the resulting efforts to achieve balance in exchange relations." Source: Social exchange theory. (1996). Pathbreakers. Retrieved from http://www.washington.edu/research/pathbreakers/index.html#1978
Application: Social exchange theory is important to think about in the context of community development when it comes to organizing the community. When reaching out to community members to encourage their participation in the development process, their participation can hinge on what benefits they see it bringing them versus what costs might be accrued if they were to participate. For example, a resident might want to become involved in an organizing campaign, but doing so might cause them to have less time to spend with their family on the weekends. That resident may think through a small cost-benefit analysis to see if they would get as much out of the organizing process as they would have to put in, and if the benefits of the organizing outweigh the costs of spending less time with family.
Adaptation: Social exchange theory can be easily applied to the business world and economics . For example, a business that has the option to merge with another similar business will weigh the costs and benefits of agreeing to the merger versus continuing as a single, stand alone business before making a decision.
Friday, October 16, 2015
Thursday, October 15, 2015
Social Movement Theory
Social Movement Theory: Theory that attempts to explain why social mobilization occurs, the conditions under which it occurs, and the consequences of its occurrence.
(Source: Morris, Mueller, C.M. (1992). Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press.)
In community development, this applies whenever members of a community assess the needs and concerns of the community, such as the mistreatment and murders of its members, and organize rallies and marches to protest these issues. As of recently, demonstrators have mobilized in attempt to protest the murders of African Americans like Sandra Bland, Freddie Gray, and Oscar Grant.
In other fields, such as social media, bloggers can craft think pieces, videos and announcements in order to garner more support and more participation for a good cause. One example of this is Arab Spring in Egypt in 2011. This was started by a group of young people in Egypt in an attempt to get President Mubarak to step down from office due to his administration's treatment of its citizens. The Arab Spring Revolution started on Facebook and drew thousands of supporters and protesters, and was the catalyst in Mubarak to eventually give up his position in office.
(Source: Morris, Mueller, C.M. (1992). Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press.)
In community development, this applies whenever members of a community assess the needs and concerns of the community, such as the mistreatment and murders of its members, and organize rallies and marches to protest these issues. As of recently, demonstrators have mobilized in attempt to protest the murders of African Americans like Sandra Bland, Freddie Gray, and Oscar Grant.
In other fields, such as social media, bloggers can craft think pieces, videos and announcements in order to garner more support and more participation for a good cause. One example of this is Arab Spring in Egypt in 2011. This was started by a group of young people in Egypt in an attempt to get President Mubarak to step down from office due to his administration's treatment of its citizens. The Arab Spring Revolution started on Facebook and drew thousands of supporters and protesters, and was the catalyst in Mubarak to eventually give up his position in office.
Wednesday, October 14, 2015
Contingency Theory
Contingency Theory: the leader's ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including the leader's preferred style, the capabilities and behaviors of followers and also various other situational factors. There is no one best way of leading and leadership styles that are effective in some situations may not be successful in others.
(Source: http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/contingency_theory.htm)
Adapt: This theory is important to community developers because sometimes they are put in a leadership position or they have a perceived leadership position when entering a community. When community developers are in a leadership position, they should think about this theory and think about what leadership style the community they are working with will respond best to. It may be beneficial to ask the community members what they look for in a leader in order to tailor to them.
Apply: This theory can be applied to business owners. When one owes a business he or she normally hires employees. Employees will be more responsive to a leader who they can relate to and easily work with. For this to happen, the business owner must critically look at his or her leadership style when working with his or her employees.
(Source: http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/contingency_theory.htm)
Adapt: This theory is important to community developers because sometimes they are put in a leadership position or they have a perceived leadership position when entering a community. When community developers are in a leadership position, they should think about this theory and think about what leadership style the community they are working with will respond best to. It may be beneficial to ask the community members what they look for in a leader in order to tailor to them.
Apply: This theory can be applied to business owners. When one owes a business he or she normally hires employees. Employees will be more responsive to a leader who they can relate to and easily work with. For this to happen, the business owner must critically look at his or her leadership style when working with his or her employees.
Attachment Theory
Attachment Theory: was developed by John Bowlby as a perspective on the secure base functions of close relationships that operate to promote child development, personality development, and affect regulation. Attachment is the deep and enduring connection established between child and a caregiver in the first several years of life that sets the stage for all future human relationships. Attachment relationships teach individuals how to be in relationship with significant others and influences all subsequent relationships through to adulthood.
(Source: Fitton, V. A. (2008). Attachment theory and mother-child relationships from a phenomenological perspective (Order No. 3331905). Available from Dissertations & Theses @ CIC Institutions; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304577690). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304577690?accountid=14667)
Apply: Community developers have to work with many people throughout their careers. It is important for community developers to keep in mind this theory because they may be able to understand more why a person they are working with has to have there best friend with them whenever they meet, or if they work with someone who is seems overly comfortable working with new people. Also, a community developer may find that a need in a community is child-care, so they must be knowledgable in the area of child development to understand what goes into creating an effective child-care program (or be knowledgeable enough to know to ask for help in this complex area).
Adapt: This theory is important for people who are in the discipline of secondary caregiving for young children. It is important for secondary caregivers of young children to know this theory in order to help prevent the children from having "bad" attachment later on in life. For instance, if a child does not show any affection towards his or her primary caregiver when he or she is dropping the child off or if the child does not cry, the secondary caregiver should be able to notice this and take necessary action.
(Source: Fitton, V. A. (2008). Attachment theory and mother-child relationships from a phenomenological perspective (Order No. 3331905). Available from Dissertations & Theses @ CIC Institutions; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304577690). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304577690?accountid=14667)
Apply: Community developers have to work with many people throughout their careers. It is important for community developers to keep in mind this theory because they may be able to understand more why a person they are working with has to have there best friend with them whenever they meet, or if they work with someone who is seems overly comfortable working with new people. Also, a community developer may find that a need in a community is child-care, so they must be knowledgable in the area of child development to understand what goes into creating an effective child-care program (or be knowledgeable enough to know to ask for help in this complex area).
Adapt: This theory is important for people who are in the discipline of secondary caregiving for young children. It is important for secondary caregivers of young children to know this theory in order to help prevent the children from having "bad" attachment later on in life. For instance, if a child does not show any affection towards his or her primary caregiver when he or she is dropping the child off or if the child does not cry, the secondary caregiver should be able to notice this and take necessary action.
Psychosocial Development Theory
Psychosocial development theory: is an eight-stage theory of identity and psychosocial development articulated by Erik Erikson. Erik believed everyone must pass through eight stages of development over the life cycle: hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. Each stage is divided into age ranges from infancy to older adults.
(Source: Simmons, Staff. May 2014. Theories Used in Social Work Practice and Practice Methods. Retrieved from: https://socialwork.simmons.edu/theories-used-social-work-practice/)
Apply: When community developers come into a community, they should understand who there community is. This theory can help community developers understand where people may be at developmentally based on their age. It can help community developers figure out what age group can help them with certain community tasks and which age groups they should not ask for help from for certain tasks.
Adapt: This theory can be used in the educational system. For example, a kindergarten teacher should not expect a five year old to understand what wisdom is. The educational system needs to focus on what stage in development the students are in order for their educational experience to be beneficial.
(Source: Simmons, Staff. May 2014. Theories Used in Social Work Practice and Practice Methods. Retrieved from: https://socialwork.simmons.edu/theories-used-social-work-practice/)
Apply: When community developers come into a community, they should understand who there community is. This theory can help community developers understand where people may be at developmentally based on their age. It can help community developers figure out what age group can help them with certain community tasks and which age groups they should not ask for help from for certain tasks.
Adapt: This theory can be used in the educational system. For example, a kindergarten teacher should not expect a five year old to understand what wisdom is. The educational system needs to focus on what stage in development the students are in order for their educational experience to be beneficial.
Tuesday, October 13, 2015
Deindividuation
Deindividuation. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/deindividuation.htm.
Apply: The community
you are working with will have less individuation because they are a part of
that community. For example, if we are talking about a community of tenants in
an apartment, their group identity revolves around their role as tenants of X
apartment building. As a community developer working with the tenants to
improve access for limited mobility tenants, you could work to decrease the
sense of deindividuation among them so that they feel more like individuals. As
a free-thinking individual, they are more likely to share out-of-the-box ideas
for solutions that they may not if they feel too attached to the identity of
the whole group.
Adapt: In politics, a politician’s goal is to have agreement
on an issue so that legislation can be passed that favors it. The politician
wants to decrease individuation so that the group he or she is speaking to identifies
not as an individual person with unique perspectives, but shares the feeling of
the group. The politician does not want dissent that comes from critical
thinkers (generally speaking,) but wants
one agreed upon issue to be felt passionately by all people, so it would be good strategy to build up the identity of the group, not the individual.
Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)
Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) is a theory and strategy for " sustainable community-driven
development" (ABCD Institute). It suggests that macro community development can be initiated and implemented by residents who recognize individual assets and strengths and put them to use to make positive change.
Apply: ABCD can be used in community development projects even if the project is not initiated by residents. Community developers can recognize the inherent strengths and assets that lie within residents and can promote or help residents realize their strengths and full potential to become community developers themselves. By helping bring these strengths to light, the community developer is developing the individual members of the community who can then work together at a more macro level.
Adapt: The theory of using individual assets and strengths to complete larger macro goals is applied in many settings besides community development. For example, when putting together a team to work on a school project, you figure out the assets and strengths of each team member to see how each person can contribute to the larger project. One person might be better at reading through research articles, another at making PowerPoint presentations, and another at writing a report. Together, their strengths combine to finish a more macro project.
Source: ABCD Institute. What is Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)? n.d. ABCD Institute.
http://www.abcdinstitute.org/docs/What%20isAssetBasedCommunityDevelopment(1).pdf
Apply: ABCD can be used in community development projects even if the project is not initiated by residents. Community developers can recognize the inherent strengths and assets that lie within residents and can promote or help residents realize their strengths and full potential to become community developers themselves. By helping bring these strengths to light, the community developer is developing the individual members of the community who can then work together at a more macro level.
Adapt: The theory of using individual assets and strengths to complete larger macro goals is applied in many settings besides community development. For example, when putting together a team to work on a school project, you figure out the assets and strengths of each team member to see how each person can contribute to the larger project. One person might be better at reading through research articles, another at making PowerPoint presentations, and another at writing a report. Together, their strengths combine to finish a more macro project.
Source: ABCD Institute. What is Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)? n.d. ABCD Institute.
http://www.abcdinstitute.org/docs/What%20isAssetBasedCommunityDevelopment(1).pdf
Maslow's Theory of Motivation(Hierarchy of Needs)
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs represents a theory of human motivation proposed by Abraham Maslow in the 1960s which states that humans possess different levels of needs with corresponding motivations, starting with most immediate needs: physiological (oxygen, water, food, etc.) to safety (security, freedom from fear, etc.), social (belongingness, love, etc.), esteem (achievement, confidence, etc.), and self-actualization (reaching one's potential).
Apply: The Hierarchy of Needs is useful in thinking about community development because it can provide an introductory understanding to where the developer needs to start. For example, if a developer enters a neighborhood trying to organize residents around creating colorful neighborhood signs (which may, indeed, create a greater sense of belongingness), residents may be focused on the fact that it is unsafe for their children to walk back and forth to school and not really care about the signs. The safety concern, which is higher on Maslow's hierarchy than is belongingness, trumps resident concern for neighborhood signs, even if they might be interested in it because they have more important motivations at the moment.
Adapt: This theory can also be applied to teachers in educational settings. If they have a student who is coming to school regularly having not completed homework or not attempting to earn A's and B's in school (esteem), they may want to look at other, more immediately important levels of the hierarchy. For example, does the student have food and a roof over their head (physiological/safety)? If not, they may not be 'motivated' to be successful in school if they do not have food to eat in the morning.
Source: Schuck, A. & D. Rosenbaum (2006). Promoting Safe and Healthy Neighborhoods: What Research Tells Us about Intervention. In K. Fulbright-Anderson and P. Auspos (Eds.), Community Change: Theories, Practice, and Evidence. The Aspen Institute.
Apply: The Hierarchy of Needs is useful in thinking about community development because it can provide an introductory understanding to where the developer needs to start. For example, if a developer enters a neighborhood trying to organize residents around creating colorful neighborhood signs (which may, indeed, create a greater sense of belongingness), residents may be focused on the fact that it is unsafe for their children to walk back and forth to school and not really care about the signs. The safety concern, which is higher on Maslow's hierarchy than is belongingness, trumps resident concern for neighborhood signs, even if they might be interested in it because they have more important motivations at the moment.
Adapt: This theory can also be applied to teachers in educational settings. If they have a student who is coming to school regularly having not completed homework or not attempting to earn A's and B's in school (esteem), they may want to look at other, more immediately important levels of the hierarchy. For example, does the student have food and a roof over their head (physiological/safety)? If not, they may not be 'motivated' to be successful in school if they do not have food to eat in the morning.
Source: Schuck, A. & D. Rosenbaum (2006). Promoting Safe and Healthy Neighborhoods: What Research Tells Us about Intervention. In K. Fulbright-Anderson and P. Auspos (Eds.), Community Change: Theories, Practice, and Evidence. The Aspen Institute.
Minority Influence
Define: One person’s lone opinion does not hold much power
in a group, but when another person who agrees stands with the lone dissenter,
a minority group is formed. Now their influence is more significant, and they
often have more passion and expertise about the issue because they stand
against the majority.
Minority Influence. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/minority_influence.htm
Apply: The group that you will gather in a community
development project is probably the minority group, and they are
united in one opinion about the solution to a problem. The majority group-
maybe the community at large- does not care about the issue or doesn’t see it
as an issue. You as a lone community developer do not have much influence, but
when a few people from the majority join your cause because they too were the
outspoken advocates of the change you seek, your combined influence becomes
greater, and the majority will be forced to acknowledge you (and hopefully be
influenced by your passion to make a change.)
Adapt: In a classroom setting, it is hard to voice your
opinion if it differs from the majority’s. When the teacher asks a question in which
students are supposed to give an opinion, particularly if it seemingly has only
two different positions, students may “jump on the bandwagon” with the first
answer given. But after one person has spoken a dissenting viewpoint, often
times others who were thinking it but were to afraid to say it will join in
with that brave first person. Together,
they can influence the general viewpoint of the classroom because they have
shown legitimate reasons why they believe in their answer.
Social Cohesion
Social Cohesion refers to "the extent to which residents share a sense of community, an attraction-to-place, patterns of regular interaction among themselves, and a sense of trust and mutuality" (Fulbright-Anderson and Auspos).
Apply: When a community developer is entering a community, it is important they recognize and understand the strength of the community's social cohesion. If there is a strong sense of cohesion among residents, the community developer would start their initiative in a different place than they would if there was a weak sense of cohesion. With a weak sense of cohesion, they would need to first focus on bringing neighborhood folks together to build greater cohesion. Further, the strength of the cohesion will affect resident involvement and participation, and developers would have more work to do to gain group participation and, likely, support.
Adapt: If a business is looking to open up shop in a community, it would be in their best interest to gauge the sense of social cohesion in the community. For example, if a payday loan shop wants to open a branch in a neighborhood that has a strong sense of social cohesion, residents are more likely to fight back against such a place being opened. On the other hand, if they do not have a strong sense of social cohesion, it might be easier for the payday loan branch to open because there is less potential for a cohesive agenda or organized action.
Source: Fulbright-Anderson, K (2006). Community Change: Implications for Complex Community Initiatives. In K. Fulbright-Anderson and P. Auspos (Eds.), Community Change: Theories, Practice, and Evidence. The Aspen Institute.
Apply: When a community developer is entering a community, it is important they recognize and understand the strength of the community's social cohesion. If there is a strong sense of cohesion among residents, the community developer would start their initiative in a different place than they would if there was a weak sense of cohesion. With a weak sense of cohesion, they would need to first focus on bringing neighborhood folks together to build greater cohesion. Further, the strength of the cohesion will affect resident involvement and participation, and developers would have more work to do to gain group participation and, likely, support.
Adapt: If a business is looking to open up shop in a community, it would be in their best interest to gauge the sense of social cohesion in the community. For example, if a payday loan shop wants to open a branch in a neighborhood that has a strong sense of social cohesion, residents are more likely to fight back against such a place being opened. On the other hand, if they do not have a strong sense of social cohesion, it might be easier for the payday loan branch to open because there is less potential for a cohesive agenda or organized action.
Source: Fulbright-Anderson, K (2006). Community Change: Implications for Complex Community Initiatives. In K. Fulbright-Anderson and P. Auspos (Eds.), Community Change: Theories, Practice, and Evidence. The Aspen Institute.
Ladder of Participation
Ladder of Participation: The 'Ladder of Participation' is a theory of citizen participation proposed by Sherry Arnstein in 1969. It states that there are 8 'rungs' on the ladder of participation that illustrate resident involvement in institutional programming, ranging from 'manipulation' to 'citizen control.'
Apply: The Ladder of Participation can be used in community development work when determining what type of and how much control program staff will give to participants. For example, when an organization decides to initiate a community development project, they have to determine what roles staff will have and what roles residents will have. They could decide to give complete control to citizens (citizen control, 8th rung) and merely provide funding, or they could just give residents a head's up (inform, 3rd rung) when they are making decisions about programming.
Adapt: This model can also be utilized by government offices. For example, if a city is embarking on an initiative to increase access to entrepreneurial endeavors for immigrants, they have to decide who will be involved in the project. They could make decisions about programming without talking to immigrants (rung: manipulate or therapy) or they could incorporate immigrants and immigrant-led organizations in the process (rung: partnership or delegated power). How they go about deciding on participatory roles for immigrants will change how the initiative is received and, ultimately, whether or not it is successful.
Sources: Arnstein, Sherry. (1969). A Ladder of Citizen Participation. AIP Journal, July 1969.
Apply: The Ladder of Participation can be used in community development work when determining what type of and how much control program staff will give to participants. For example, when an organization decides to initiate a community development project, they have to determine what roles staff will have and what roles residents will have. They could decide to give complete control to citizens (citizen control, 8th rung) and merely provide funding, or they could just give residents a head's up (inform, 3rd rung) when they are making decisions about programming.
Adapt: This model can also be utilized by government offices. For example, if a city is embarking on an initiative to increase access to entrepreneurial endeavors for immigrants, they have to decide who will be involved in the project. They could make decisions about programming without talking to immigrants (rung: manipulate or therapy) or they could incorporate immigrants and immigrant-led organizations in the process (rung: partnership or delegated power). How they go about deciding on participatory roles for immigrants will change how the initiative is received and, ultimately, whether or not it is successful.
Sources: Arnstein, Sherry. (1969). A Ladder of Citizen Participation. AIP Journal, July 1969.
Monday, October 12, 2015
Labeling theory
Define: In a way, this theory combines conflict theory and symbolic interaction as it examines the power of labels in society. It emphasizes deviance as relative and explains the process by which select people, groups, or institutions (typically those with power) are able to label others as deviance.\
Adapt: Another field that this theory is applicable to is the field of criminology. In criminology, once a is labeled or seen as deviant, the person engaging in that behavior is considered deviant. This can often lead to what is known as the self fulfilling prophecy, which is when a person is so overwhelmed by the label placed on them by others, they start to conform to the label.
-- Loney, K.(n.d.). Sociological theories to explain deviance. retrieved from: http://ww2.valdosta.edu/~klowney/devtheories.htm
Apply: In social work labeling theory is very relevant. It is not until clients, communities,behaviors etc. are labeled, that they are considered as something besides the 'norm'. It is often times this labeling process that stigmatizes the community that we desire to work with and makes it seem as somewhat less desirable than the community that has not been labeled as outside of the norm. Often times the work we do as professionals is to merely breakdown the stigma placed on those we work with.
Adapt: Another field that this theory is applicable to is the field of criminology. In criminology, once a is labeled or seen as deviant, the person engaging in that behavior is considered deviant. This can often lead to what is known as the self fulfilling prophecy, which is when a person is so overwhelmed by the label placed on them by others, they start to conform to the label.
Cross Cultural Communication Theory
Define: Cross cultural communication theory refers to the idea of communication between people who have differences across things such as age, nationality, ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, etc. It can also include the efforts made to exchange, negotiate and mediate cultural differences by means of language, gestures and body language.
Source: Tannen, D. (1985). Cross cultural communication. Handbook of discourse analysis (4). Discourse Analysis in Society.
Apply: This can be applied to many contexts within the realm of social work. For community development in general, this can be imperative in working within any community that one may not necessarily be apart of. It can show up in rapport building, building community cohesion, and throughout many phases in the action stages. It can also be used to solve potential conflict or misunderstandings that may arise due to cultural differences.
Adapt: This theory can be used in anthropology as well. Often times, Anthropoligist study communities that they do not identify with in many context. It is then important for the anthropologist to understand the differences in gestures, body language, etc between the culture they wish to study and their own.
Source: Tannen, D. (1985). Cross cultural communication. Handbook of discourse analysis (4). Discourse Analysis in Society.
Apply: This can be applied to many contexts within the realm of social work. For community development in general, this can be imperative in working within any community that one may not necessarily be apart of. It can show up in rapport building, building community cohesion, and throughout many phases in the action stages. It can also be used to solve potential conflict or misunderstandings that may arise due to cultural differences.
Adapt: This theory can be used in anthropology as well. Often times, Anthropoligist study communities that they do not identify with in many context. It is then important for the anthropologist to understand the differences in gestures, body language, etc between the culture they wish to study and their own.
Strengths-Based Theory
Definition:
In contrast to the dominant approach to professional practice that focuses on problem identification and treatment, Saleebey supports a paradigm shift in which professional practice concentrates on the strengths of the people social workers serve.
Application: When entering a community as a community developer, it is important to take a strengths-based approach in order to see the assets a community possesses and what are some positive aspects of the community to build upon. As opposed to just pointing out the issues or problems within a community, the strengths-based approach provides valuable feedback for community members that often enables then to feel empowered and have the desire to build upon these strengths. The strengths based approach also takes the focus off the community organizer as the expert and places it back in the hands of the community by giving them an opportunity to showcase their assets.
Adaptation: The strengths-based theory can also be applied to the academic setting. The grading system within many classrooms is based on highlighting what students have done wrong in order to derive their grade. A quantitative grade reflects errors or mistakes made in an assignment explaining how the student did not achieve a complete 100%. However, it is in the feedback, more qualitative, whether on an assignment, at parent teacher conferences or on a report card that the teacher is able to take a more strengths-based approach.
In contrast to the dominant approach to professional practice that focuses on problem identification and treatment, Saleebey supports a paradigm shift in which professional practice concentrates on the strengths of the people social workers serve.
Central to the strengths-based approach to practice is the principle of empowerment, emphasizing the discovery and use of resources that are within the individual, group, family, or community and those resources that exist within their environments. Social workers assist clients in identifying such resources through collaborative methods that validate and assist the client in harnessing these resources toward their goals.
Soine, L. (2013, July 1). Warrior Canine Connection - Puppy Training Program Tackles PTSD and TBI. Retrieved October 13, 2015, from http://www.socialworktoday.com/archive/070813p16.shtmlApplication: When entering a community as a community developer, it is important to take a strengths-based approach in order to see the assets a community possesses and what are some positive aspects of the community to build upon. As opposed to just pointing out the issues or problems within a community, the strengths-based approach provides valuable feedback for community members that often enables then to feel empowered and have the desire to build upon these strengths. The strengths based approach also takes the focus off the community organizer as the expert and places it back in the hands of the community by giving them an opportunity to showcase their assets.
Adaptation: The strengths-based theory can also be applied to the academic setting. The grading system within many classrooms is based on highlighting what students have done wrong in order to derive their grade. A quantitative grade reflects errors or mistakes made in an assignment explaining how the student did not achieve a complete 100%. However, it is in the feedback, more qualitative, whether on an assignment, at parent teacher conferences or on a report card that the teacher is able to take a more strengths-based approach.
Standpoint Theory
Definition: Standpoint theory operates under
the assumption that one’s experience of the world is contingent on their
material reality.
Consequently, different material realities produce different ways of being and
knowing. Emerging out of these distinct epistemologies is the idea, “the
oppressed are seen as having an ‘epistemic advantage’ because they can operate
within two sets of practices and in two different contexts,” which dominant
groups lack the ability to do (Narayan, pp. 338-339). Source: Narayan, U. (1989). The Project of Feminist Epistemology: Perspectives from a Nonwestern Feminist. In C. R. McCann and S. Kim (Eds.), Feminist Theory Reader, Local and Global Perspectives (pp. 332-340). New York, NY: Routledge.
Application: Standpoint theory is critical to community development work. When entering a community, it is important to defer to the community members and respect them as experts on their own community. Rather than coming into a community with a grand masterplan to fix it, community developers should seek out the beliefs, values, and ideas of the people who actually live in the community and are privy to community knowledge that outsiders are not.
Adaptation: I think standpoint theory could also be adapted to various business disciplines. Without consulting the people they are hoping to sell products to, or selling products/starting a a new business in a neighborhood without any understanding of the community, businesses could make less of a profit than they could have making a product or starting a business in a community where they knew their products or business were both need and wanted by consumers.
Liberalism
Definition: At the core of liberal philosophy is the idea that "All systems either of preference or of restraint, therefore, being thus completely taken away, the obvious and simple system of natural liberty establishes itself of its own accord. Every man, as long as he does not violate the laws of justice, is left perfectly free to pursue his own interest his own way, and to bring both his industry and capital into competition with those of any other man, or order of men." Source: Klein, D. (2014, February 13). The Origin of 'Liberalism.' The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/02/the-origin-of-liberalism/283780/
Application: In community development work, it is important to identify the degree to which the community you are working with operates under liberal theory. Because our history is entrenched in liberal theory, many Americans adhere to the notion of individualism, rather than a collectivist approach that is more conducive to community building. This could be an important component of a community assessment as far as determining what types of strategies or projects would be most feasible in the community based on how strongly they adhere to liberal ideals.
Adaptation: Outside of community development work, I think that liberal theory is important to understand within the context of education. Because our education system is similarly influenced by liberal individualism, many of our classrooms foster individual competition rather than co-learning. Educators should be aware of how this theory can impact students in the classroom and take care to create classroom environments that encourage students to work together rather than against each other.
Application: In community development work, it is important to identify the degree to which the community you are working with operates under liberal theory. Because our history is entrenched in liberal theory, many Americans adhere to the notion of individualism, rather than a collectivist approach that is more conducive to community building. This could be an important component of a community assessment as far as determining what types of strategies or projects would be most feasible in the community based on how strongly they adhere to liberal ideals.
Adaptation: Outside of community development work, I think that liberal theory is important to understand within the context of education. Because our education system is similarly influenced by liberal individualism, many of our classrooms foster individual competition rather than co-learning. Educators should be aware of how this theory can impact students in the classroom and take care to create classroom environments that encourage students to work together rather than against each other.
Sunday, October 11, 2015
Balance Theory
Balance Theory: says that if people see a set of cognitive elements as being a system, then they have a preference to maintain a balanced state among these elements. In other words, if we feel we are 'out of balance', then we are motivated to restore a position of balance.
(Source: Retrieved from:http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/balance_theory.htm)
Apply: This theory can work in community developers favor when a community is not in balance. This theory is stating that people are motivated to restore balance. For example, in a community where there is a disproportionate amount of people compared to parks, community members may be more likely to work with community developers to create more parks in order to restore balance and meet needs.
Adapt: Therapists can also use this theory when working with clients. For instance, a client who abuses substances may be balancing themselves out by abusing the substance instead of addressing the issue at hand. Instead of abusing substances, the therapist can give the client tools to balance himself or herself out in a healthy manner.
(Source: Retrieved from:http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/balance_theory.htm)
Apply: This theory can work in community developers favor when a community is not in balance. This theory is stating that people are motivated to restore balance. For example, in a community where there is a disproportionate amount of people compared to parks, community members may be more likely to work with community developers to create more parks in order to restore balance and meet needs.
Adapt: Therapists can also use this theory when working with clients. For instance, a client who abuses substances may be balancing themselves out by abusing the substance instead of addressing the issue at hand. Instead of abusing substances, the therapist can give the client tools to balance himself or herself out in a healthy manner.
Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory: suggests that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. People learn through observing others' behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors.
(Source:Retrieved from http: //www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html)
Apply: In community development it is essential to learn about the community before making changes and starting to help. This theory is important to think about when first entering a community. Community developers should learn from the community by observing community members behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors.
Adapt: This theory can relate to the discipline of anthropology. Anthropologists study humanity. In order to study humanity, one must observe, imitate, and model in order to better understand why a particular culture or person does what they do. For example, an anthropologist would participate in a cultural dance in order to better understand the meaning behind the dance.
(Source:Retrieved from http: //www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html)
Apply: In community development it is essential to learn about the community before making changes and starting to help. This theory is important to think about when first entering a community. Community developers should learn from the community by observing community members behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors.
Adapt: This theory can relate to the discipline of anthropology. Anthropologists study humanity. In order to study humanity, one must observe, imitate, and model in order to better understand why a particular culture or person does what they do. For example, an anthropologist would participate in a cultural dance in order to better understand the meaning behind the dance.
Differential Anticipation Theory
Differential Anticipation Theory: whether someone engages in crime depends upon the consequences that are expected from its commission, prior learning experience, and the quality of the bonds the person has with others.
(Source: Einstadter W., Henry S. Criminology Theory: An Analysis of Its Underlying Assumptions. Chapter 8: Social Process Theories I: learning, bonding and social control.)
Apply: When social workers enter communities with high crime rates they should keep this theory in mind. From this theory, social workers should look into what the consequences are for community members who commit crimes in order to understand better why people in the community think it is "okay" to commit the crimes.
Adapt: This theory is used in criminal justice. It helps people in this discipline better understand why people are committing crimes.
(Source: Einstadter W., Henry S. Criminology Theory: An Analysis of Its Underlying Assumptions. Chapter 8: Social Process Theories I: learning, bonding and social control.)
Apply: When social workers enter communities with high crime rates they should keep this theory in mind. From this theory, social workers should look into what the consequences are for community members who commit crimes in order to understand better why people in the community think it is "okay" to commit the crimes.
Adapt: This theory is used in criminal justice. It helps people in this discipline better understand why people are committing crimes.
Social Comparison Theory
Social Comparison Theory: states that we determine our own social and personal worth based on how we stack up against others.
(Source: Psychology Today, Social Comparison Theory)
Apply: This theory can be applied to community development when social workers come into a community where most people in the community do not think they have much worth. Community members may see other communities near by and not feel like they can ever be as good as them. Also, some community members may feel superior to others because of having a nicer house or car than anyone else in the neighborhood.
Adapt: This theory can be seen in the educational system. A student may not think they are good enough because other classmates are getting better grades on exams than he or she is. On the other hand, a person may feel great about themselves because he or she is getting the best grades in the class and is the teachers favorite.
(Source: Psychology Today, Social Comparison Theory)
Apply: This theory can be applied to community development when social workers come into a community where most people in the community do not think they have much worth. Community members may see other communities near by and not feel like they can ever be as good as them. Also, some community members may feel superior to others because of having a nicer house or car than anyone else in the neighborhood.
Adapt: This theory can be seen in the educational system. A student may not think they are good enough because other classmates are getting better grades on exams than he or she is. On the other hand, a person may feel great about themselves because he or she is getting the best grades in the class and is the teachers favorite.
Saturday, October 10, 2015
Post-structuralism
Post-structuralism emerged in the later half of the twentieth century as a response to structuralist and modern thought by philosophers such as Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and Judith Butler. It rejects the idea of an authoritative, objective, universal truth, and instead acknowledges that realities, identities and needs are varied, subjective and shifting. (Mullaly, The New Structural Social Work)
Post-structuralist thought has been slow to influence social work practice, but its impact can be seen in some aspects of community development as well as other areas of social work. One example is the recent movement away from "cultural competence" towards "cultural humility", a shift which acknowledges the problems with assuming that there can be knowledge of social practices and norms which are universally experienced within cultures.
Post-structuralism has deep connections to many social and political movements, such as critical theory, feminist and queer thought. One example can be seen within Black Feminist Thought which has critiqued the idea of a "universal" experience of womanhood, pointing out that the ways in which many Black women experience gender oppression varies greatly from white women.
Post-structuralist thought has been slow to influence social work practice, but its impact can be seen in some aspects of community development as well as other areas of social work. One example is the recent movement away from "cultural competence" towards "cultural humility", a shift which acknowledges the problems with assuming that there can be knowledge of social practices and norms which are universally experienced within cultures.
Post-structuralism has deep connections to many social and political movements, such as critical theory, feminist and queer thought. One example can be seen within Black Feminist Thought which has critiqued the idea of a "universal" experience of womanhood, pointing out that the ways in which many Black women experience gender oppression varies greatly from white women.
Critical Race Theory
Definition: Critical race theory (CRT) focuses on the personal experiences of people of color. Legal scholars developed CRT because they were aware of the racism occurring in society and they wanted to create a tool that challenged the oppressive structures that promote white supremacy. CRT challenges the belief that racism will be eliminated by color blindness, that racism is not a systemic issue, and that one can challenge racism without acknowledging other forms of oppression and isms.
Application: CRT can be applied to community development work because it is important to understand how social issues specifically affect people of color. Applying this theory will help community developers identify the actual cause of issues that affect people of color instead of believing the stereotypes that are held against people of color. CRT would help build rapport with folks in the community and help with identifying strengths as well as deficiencies. CRT can also help in community development by changing the public's perception of social problems, which will increase outside support of development projects.
Adaptation: CRT can be adapted to all other disciplines besides social work or community development that work with people of color. The education field can adapt CRT to better work with parents of color and to help understand children of color who perform differently than their peers. It can also be adapted to the legal system to analyze rates of incarceration for people of color. Lastly, CRT can be used in the medical field to assess the relationship people of color have with medicine and/or doctors.
Reference:
Solórzano, D. G., & Yosso, T. J. (2002). Critical race methodology: Counter-storytelling as an analytical framework for education research. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(1), 23-44. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/1756376/Critical_Race_Methodology_Counter-Storytelling_as_an_Analytical_Framework_for_Education_Research._Daniel_G._Solorzano_and_Tara_J._Yosso_Qualitative_Inquiry_2002
Application: CRT can be applied to community development work because it is important to understand how social issues specifically affect people of color. Applying this theory will help community developers identify the actual cause of issues that affect people of color instead of believing the stereotypes that are held against people of color. CRT would help build rapport with folks in the community and help with identifying strengths as well as deficiencies. CRT can also help in community development by changing the public's perception of social problems, which will increase outside support of development projects.
Adaptation: CRT can be adapted to all other disciplines besides social work or community development that work with people of color. The education field can adapt CRT to better work with parents of color and to help understand children of color who perform differently than their peers. It can also be adapted to the legal system to analyze rates of incarceration for people of color. Lastly, CRT can be used in the medical field to assess the relationship people of color have with medicine and/or doctors.
Reference:
Solórzano, D. G., & Yosso, T. J. (2002). Critical race methodology: Counter-storytelling as an analytical framework for education research. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(1), 23-44. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/1756376/Critical_Race_Methodology_Counter-Storytelling_as_an_Analytical_Framework_for_Education_Research._Daniel_G._Solorzano_and_Tara_J._Yosso_Qualitative_Inquiry_2002
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a political theory attributed to Jeremy Bentham which says that the best action is that which maximizes utility, or produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. (Miller, D. (2013). Utilitarianism. Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology : An Encyclopedia, 886-888.)
Utilitarian theory suggests in order to reach an ethical decision, we must make the choice that benefits the most people. This is a principal often applied in community development work- for instance, a local government may utilize rights of eminent domain and evict a few people from their homes in order to create infrastructure whose benefit to the community as a whole is seen to outweigh the cost or harm to that smaller group of homeowners.
Utilitarian principals are also often present in national and international politics. For instance, the U.S. has a stated policy of not "bargaining" with hostage takers; while paying a ransom for kidnapped individuals may save their lives, the theory suggests that greater harm will ultimately result from the increased incentive to kidnap future hostages.
Altercasting
Define: A tactic of persuasion. When you force a role onto a person, they will behave according to that role.
Altercasting. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Media%2C%20Culture%20and%20Society/Altercasting/.
Apply: As a community organizer, you will be putting people in various roles (committee leaders, for example) within your organization for change. Their behavior influences the organization, and you will want them to be successful so that the change your community is seeking occurs. This theory says that because you put a person in that role, they will live up to it because people generally accept roles they are given, and they face a social pressure to fulfill that role.
Adapt: This theory could play out in the field of higher education. There are many opportunities for students to fulfill leadership roles in student organizations. Previous leaders may impose a role onto a new student as that student becomes more familiar with the campus organization and the duties that various roles require. It reminds me of giving someone confidence, and hoping that the pressure you create by telling someone they are a fit for a role actually helps them fit into that role successfully.
Altercasting. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Media%2C%20Culture%20and%20Society/Altercasting/.
Apply: As a community organizer, you will be putting people in various roles (committee leaders, for example) within your organization for change. Their behavior influences the organization, and you will want them to be successful so that the change your community is seeking occurs. This theory says that because you put a person in that role, they will live up to it because people generally accept roles they are given, and they face a social pressure to fulfill that role.
Adapt: This theory could play out in the field of higher education. There are many opportunities for students to fulfill leadership roles in student organizations. Previous leaders may impose a role onto a new student as that student becomes more familiar with the campus organization and the duties that various roles require. It reminds me of giving someone confidence, and hoping that the pressure you create by telling someone they are a fit for a role actually helps them fit into that role successfully.
Gatekeeping
Define: Gatekeepers (can be individuals or institutions) control which pieces of information, goods, or other commodities will flow into a system.
Gatekeeping. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Media%2C%20Culture%20and%20Society/gatekeeping/.
Apply: In community development, you may end up in a gatekeeper role. For example, my assignment 1 group is charged with creating a how-to guide for running for office, and we are working with a potential candidate. He is a gatekeeper in that he controls what information about his platform he will share with his constituents. He has plans for the community he is running in, but how he presents them and the details he includes or excludes puts him in the position of gatekeeper.
Adapt: Website developers have to decide what information they are going to allow you to post on social media. For the most part, we can post what we want without consequences. But occasionally, administrators step in and remove a post that somehow violated their guidelines. In this way, they are controlling what information they allow users to share- like a form of censorship.
Gatekeeping. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Media%2C%20Culture%20and%20Society/gatekeeping/.
Apply: In community development, you may end up in a gatekeeper role. For example, my assignment 1 group is charged with creating a how-to guide for running for office, and we are working with a potential candidate. He is a gatekeeper in that he controls what information about his platform he will share with his constituents. He has plans for the community he is running in, but how he presents them and the details he includes or excludes puts him in the position of gatekeeper.
Adapt: Website developers have to decide what information they are going to allow you to post on social media. For the most part, we can post what we want without consequences. But occasionally, administrators step in and remove a post that somehow violated their guidelines. In this way, they are controlling what information they allow users to share- like a form of censorship.
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning is changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. There are three kinds: neutral, reinforcers, and punishers.
Application: Operant Conditioning could come up in community development work if you were working with a marginalized population. Marginalized populations are constantly given punishers, discouraging them from trying a behavior again. For instance, many African Americans were punished for exercising the right to vote, some even dying for it. This discouraged voting in the African American community for a while, but eventually activists in the community reinforced the behavior of voting by fighting for the end of Jim Crow laws.
Adaption: operant conditioning can be applied to teaching. When teaching a difficult concept, a teacher could reinforce curiosity and initiative by rewarding students as they grasped the concepts, encouraging that kind of behavior in the future.
McLeod, S. (2007). Skinner, Operant Conditioning. retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
Application: Operant Conditioning could come up in community development work if you were working with a marginalized population. Marginalized populations are constantly given punishers, discouraging them from trying a behavior again. For instance, many African Americans were punished for exercising the right to vote, some even dying for it. This discouraged voting in the African American community for a while, but eventually activists in the community reinforced the behavior of voting by fighting for the end of Jim Crow laws.
Adaption: operant conditioning can be applied to teaching. When teaching a difficult concept, a teacher could reinforce curiosity and initiative by rewarding students as they grasped the concepts, encouraging that kind of behavior in the future.
McLeod, S. (2007). Skinner, Operant Conditioning. retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
Social Constructionism
Social Constructionism: How sociocultural and historical contexts shape individuals and the creation of knowledge; How individuals create themselves
Application - This theory is particularly important to community development work, because context is critical in how anyone sees the world. As someone from rural Indiana, I might see the world very differently than someone from Detroit, and this is something I must always keep in mind when working with a new community. I must deconstruct my social constructs in order to see things a new way.
Adaption - This theory can be applied to the field of marketing. The goal of marketing is to sell a product or idea, and smart marketers will target their messages differently in different contexts. People in the deep south might be more responsive to certain types of messages than people in midwest because of their social constructs. This is why marketers do market research, in order to make their ideas and products more palatable to different markets.
apu.edu (2008). Overview of Theories of Human Behavior & The Social Environment. retrieved from from: http://home.apu.edu/~ksetterlund/2012-2013/theories%20handout%20with%20terminology.pdf
Application - This theory is particularly important to community development work, because context is critical in how anyone sees the world. As someone from rural Indiana, I might see the world very differently than someone from Detroit, and this is something I must always keep in mind when working with a new community. I must deconstruct my social constructs in order to see things a new way.
Adaption - This theory can be applied to the field of marketing. The goal of marketing is to sell a product or idea, and smart marketers will target their messages differently in different contexts. People in the deep south might be more responsive to certain types of messages than people in midwest because of their social constructs. This is why marketers do market research, in order to make their ideas and products more palatable to different markets.
apu.edu (2008). Overview of Theories of Human Behavior & The Social Environment. retrieved from from: http://home.apu.edu/~ksetterlund/2012-2013/theories%20handout%20with%20terminology.pdf
Technical Assistance Model
Definition: One of three themes/models developed by Christenson (1989) to describe common approaches to community development practice. The model focuses on a community developer as an advisor who facilitates task seeking to accomplish an end outcome.
Application: In practice this could take the form of a community resource center for the unemployed. The center would focus on advising residents on how to complete a resume and job application with the goal of becoming employed. The focus is on helping the residents get a specific job that is available. The community developer would measure success based on the number of jobs secured, not on future capacity to find a job if the resident was to become unemployed again.
Adaption: This approach is often found in higher education related to financial aid. When students are seeking federal aid as incoming first-year students, they must complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) form which is notoriously complicated. Many organizations will assist students in completing this form by providing their technical expertise and familiarity with filling it out. This ultimately saves students time and helps them get the aid they deserve without providing them a detailed understanding of how to fill it out in the future.
Application: In practice this could take the form of a community resource center for the unemployed. The center would focus on advising residents on how to complete a resume and job application with the goal of becoming employed. The focus is on helping the residents get a specific job that is available. The community developer would measure success based on the number of jobs secured, not on future capacity to find a job if the resident was to become unemployed again.
Adaption: This approach is often found in higher education related to financial aid. When students are seeking federal aid as incoming first-year students, they must complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) form which is notoriously complicated. Many organizations will assist students in completing this form by providing their technical expertise and familiarity with filling it out. This ultimately saves students time and helps them get the aid they deserve without providing them a detailed understanding of how to fill it out in the future.
Sources:
Christenson, J.A. (1989). Themes of community development. In Eds. J.A. Christenson and J. Robinson Jr. Community Development in Perspective. (pp.26-47). Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Self-Help Model
Definition: The Self-help model focuses on a community developer as a
facilitator/educator who facilitates process with the essential goal of
"helping people help themselves." The a community developer remains neutral within this model and believes that process and developing individual capacity will lead to residents helping themselves and taking control of their communities in the future.
Application: In practice this could take the form of a literacy inactive for adults. The focus is on developing the skill of literacy and allowing the residents to use that skill to apply it as they see fit. Whether the individuals use it for a job application or to continue their education is not as much of a concern of the community developer in this model.
Adaption: This approach could also be applied and is widely applied in education. Through this lens, education is less about a task or end goal (i.e. getting a job) and is more about process and preparing individuals to be self-sufficient after they graduate from school. For example in special education in high school, teachers are expected to prepare students with a disability to take increasing ownership of their Individual Education Plan (IEP). Throughout high school, teachers and counselors support students to take on a larger role in determining the accommodations that they need to be successful, so that when students graduate they are ready to be self-advocates for accommodations either within higher education or in the work place.
Application: In practice this could take the form of a literacy inactive for adults. The focus is on developing the skill of literacy and allowing the residents to use that skill to apply it as they see fit. Whether the individuals use it for a job application or to continue their education is not as much of a concern of the community developer in this model.
Adaption: This approach could also be applied and is widely applied in education. Through this lens, education is less about a task or end goal (i.e. getting a job) and is more about process and preparing individuals to be self-sufficient after they graduate from school. For example in special education in high school, teachers are expected to prepare students with a disability to take increasing ownership of their Individual Education Plan (IEP). Throughout high school, teachers and counselors support students to take on a larger role in determining the accommodations that they need to be successful, so that when students graduate they are ready to be self-advocates for accommodations either within higher education or in the work place.
Sources:
Christenson, J.A.
(1989). Themes of community development. In Eds. J.A. Christenson and J.
Robinson Jr. Community Development in
Perspective. (pp.26-47). Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Cooperative Learning Theory
Cooperative Learning Theory: The assumption that adolescents and teenager can learn as much from each other as from adults.
(Source: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, 2001)
In social work, this means when people get involved and form a grassroots team, such as a neighborhood watch group, and they come up with a list of goals and objectives. They then come up with plans to achieve these goals and objectives, and designate roles and responsibilities in executing these tasks.
When applied to other fields, this happens in engineering, when a team scientists discover new functions and new, conventional ways to make life easier, and use other scientists and inventions, as well as each other, as a source of inspiration. This happens in the redesigning of original cars, and the invention of brand new models (Chrysler, Ford, Mitsubishi), with sleeker styles, implementation of satellite radios, better speed, a new source of power (electric), and other updates to change the way society commutes.
(Source: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, 2001)
In social work, this means when people get involved and form a grassroots team, such as a neighborhood watch group, and they come up with a list of goals and objectives. They then come up with plans to achieve these goals and objectives, and designate roles and responsibilities in executing these tasks.
When applied to other fields, this happens in engineering, when a team scientists discover new functions and new, conventional ways to make life easier, and use other scientists and inventions, as well as each other, as a source of inspiration. This happens in the redesigning of original cars, and the invention of brand new models (Chrysler, Ford, Mitsubishi), with sleeker styles, implementation of satellite radios, better speed, a new source of power (electric), and other updates to change the way society commutes.
Communicative Action Theory
Communicative Action Theory: This theory suggests that language plays the role of coordinating the goal-directed activities of different subjects, as well as the role of a medium in the socialization of these very subjects.
(Source: Haberman, J. (1981). The Theory of Communicative Action. Translated by Thomas McCarthy. Boston: Beacon Press.)
In social work, this means introducing your self into a new community with the neighborhood leaders by hosting a block party, a potluck a dinner, or other welcoming gathering. From there, a new community organizer locates the community gatekeepers and discusses the issues of the community, as well as the skills and talents they have or other members of the community have. Then, community developers designate and delegate roles, with the help of community gatekeepers, so they each member of the community has a part to play in the revitalization of the community.
Applying it to other areas, the same thing happens when a new pharmacist joins a pharmaceutical team. He or she may get to know other doctors though golf, dinner or other outings, then discuss problems with medications and with the communication/morale of staff and administration. He or she then may designate roles and responsibilities for his or her new team to correct problems within the pharmaceutical company.
(Source: Haberman, J. (1981). The Theory of Communicative Action. Translated by Thomas McCarthy. Boston: Beacon Press.)
In social work, this means introducing your self into a new community with the neighborhood leaders by hosting a block party, a potluck a dinner, or other welcoming gathering. From there, a new community organizer locates the community gatekeepers and discusses the issues of the community, as well as the skills and talents they have or other members of the community have. Then, community developers designate and delegate roles, with the help of community gatekeepers, so they each member of the community has a part to play in the revitalization of the community.
Applying it to other areas, the same thing happens when a new pharmacist joins a pharmaceutical team. He or she may get to know other doctors though golf, dinner or other outings, then discuss problems with medications and with the communication/morale of staff and administration. He or she then may designate roles and responsibilities for his or her new team to correct problems within the pharmaceutical company.
Friday, October 9, 2015
Symbolic Interaction Theory
Symbolic Interaction Theory: Human life is lived in the symbolic domain. Symbols are culturally derived social objects having shared meanings that are created and maintained in social interaction. Through language and communication, symbols provide the means by which reality is constructed.
(Source:"Symbolic Interactionism." International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. 2003. Retrieved October 09, 2015 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3406900426.html)
Apply: When community developers and/or social workers go into a community they have a different symbolic meaning to community members. Some community members may see them negatively as taking children away or disrupting the community, while other community members may see them in a positive way like helping rebuild the community and giving the community needed resources. It is important for social workers and/or community developers to keep in mind what symbol they may hold for their clients or community members.
Adapt: This theory is also important in law enforcement. There are many symbols that help society know what to do and not do. This includes no parking signs, restroom signs, bike path symbols, no trespassing signs, and more. These symbols have shared cultural meaning.
(Source:"Symbolic Interactionism." International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. 2003. Retrieved October 09, 2015 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3406900426.html)
Apply: When community developers and/or social workers go into a community they have a different symbolic meaning to community members. Some community members may see them negatively as taking children away or disrupting the community, while other community members may see them in a positive way like helping rebuild the community and giving the community needed resources. It is important for social workers and/or community developers to keep in mind what symbol they may hold for their clients or community members.
Adapt: This theory is also important in law enforcement. There are many symbols that help society know what to do and not do. This includes no parking signs, restroom signs, bike path symbols, no trespassing signs, and more. These symbols have shared cultural meaning.
Containment Theory
Containment Theory: human beings are subject to criminal behavior but can resist it because of inner and outer containment. Inner control meaning self control and outer meaning family and peers.
(Source: Flexon, J. (2010). Reckless, Walter C.: Containment Theory. In Encyclopedia of Criminology Theory.)
Apply: In community development it is important to get all community members to work together. This theory is applied in social work when social workers try to contain crime by keeping community members involved in community activities. When community members have the "outer" containment of family and friends, it will help keep them out of trouble.
Adapt: This theory can be (and is) adapted to the field of criminology. It will help people in the criminology field understand better why people are committing crimes.
(Source: Flexon, J. (2010). Reckless, Walter C.: Containment Theory. In Encyclopedia of Criminology Theory.)
Apply: In community development it is important to get all community members to work together. This theory is applied in social work when social workers try to contain crime by keeping community members involved in community activities. When community members have the "outer" containment of family and friends, it will help keep them out of trouble.
Adapt: This theory can be (and is) adapted to the field of criminology. It will help people in the criminology field understand better why people are committing crimes.
Ecological Systems Theory
Ecological Systems Theory: Otherwise known as the Human Ecology Theory, this theory states that human development is influenced by the different types of environmental systems.
(Source:https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory)
Apply: This theory goes hand in hand with community development. It is applied whenever a person working in community development works with someone in the community because the way that person will work with the community developer and respond is partly based on their environment. The way community developers develop the community will influence the development of those who live in the community because the developers are changing the environment around them.
Adapt: This theory can be adapted in other disciples like education. For example, if a fourth grade teacher does not have an inviting classroom with colored posters and books around the room then the teacher's students' development will be different from a teacher who would have an inviting environment for his or her students. The way a teacher decorates a room (the environment) can have an impact on the development of their students.
Rational Choice Theory: a a framework for understanding and often formally modelling social and economic behavior.
(Source: Scott, J. (2000). "Rational Choice Theory." Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of the Present. London: Sage Publications.
In social work, this means, with a designated amount of money, choosing which programs are the most beneficial to the neediest members of the community, and which programs or activities need to be laid aside until more money arrives. This may also mean choosing between the less expensive between a number of programs that are of equal benefit.
Applying it to other fields rational choice may mean, for instance, getting $500.00, and choosing to spend it on penny stocks, which have the potential to increase over time, clothes, which tend to wear out or become out of fashion very quickly, or renting an apartment, which lasts a very limited time, usually a month. Some people, if they are money oriented, invest money in stocks, and they also invest money in small businesses.
(Source: Scott, J. (2000). "Rational Choice Theory." Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of the Present. London: Sage Publications.
In social work, this means, with a designated amount of money, choosing which programs are the most beneficial to the neediest members of the community, and which programs or activities need to be laid aside until more money arrives. This may also mean choosing between the less expensive between a number of programs that are of equal benefit.
Applying it to other fields rational choice may mean, for instance, getting $500.00, and choosing to spend it on penny stocks, which have the potential to increase over time, clothes, which tend to wear out or become out of fashion very quickly, or renting an apartment, which lasts a very limited time, usually a month. Some people, if they are money oriented, invest money in stocks, and they also invest money in small businesses.
Adult Learning Theory
Adult Learning Theory: Also known as andragogy, this theory suggests that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibilities for decisions.
(Source: Knowles, M. (1970). The Modern Practice of Adult Education, from Pedagogy to Andragogy. New Jersey; Prentice Hall Regents.)
In the field of social work, adult learning may apply to the way you handle treating a patient or student with anger issues. You can argue with them, which can make things worse, or you can let them lead the way, have them vent their frustrations, and just listen to them to help them calm down. I know this, because this happened to me at my first internship with a students, and I drew pictures with her, and on some occassions, just had conversations with her to calm down.
In terms of other fields, like science adult learning may apply to learning (through being self-taught) about different elements and their uses, and making decisions on what to invent from them (being an inventor). Some examples include Benjamin Franklin (bifocals, electricity), George Washington Carver (hundreds of patents out of a peanut), James Watt (Steam engine) and Elijah Mccoy (57 patents pertaining to the lubrication of steam engines).
Thursday, October 8, 2015
Conscientization
Conscientization: this theory pertains to the process of learning to perceive social,political, and economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality.
(Source: Lloyd, AS (1972). "Friere, Conscientization, and Adult Education." Adult Education. Retrieved from: http://aeq.sagepub.com/content/23/1/3.full.pdf+html
In social work, this means learning to observe the environment around you, and, in some cases, learning where the pockets of poverty are. Conscientization also means realizing the privilege one has, and using his or her privilege to bring attention towards those who are oppressed. This may be in terms of joblessness, homelessness, lack of food, or inadequate education.
In other fields, this may mean assisting other countries in the wake of disaster. In some cases, assisting countries like Haiti with medical supplies, and delivering countries water and food. In other cases, conscientization is when the leader of the free world works with other lawmakers to grant asylum to immigrants fleeing their homes from poverty insearch of a better life.
(Source: Lloyd, AS (1972). "Friere, Conscientization, and Adult Education." Adult Education. Retrieved from: http://aeq.sagepub.com/content/23/1/3.full.pdf+html
In social work, this means learning to observe the environment around you, and, in some cases, learning where the pockets of poverty are. Conscientization also means realizing the privilege one has, and using his or her privilege to bring attention towards those who are oppressed. This may be in terms of joblessness, homelessness, lack of food, or inadequate education.
In other fields, this may mean assisting other countries in the wake of disaster. In some cases, assisting countries like Haiti with medical supplies, and delivering countries water and food. In other cases, conscientization is when the leader of the free world works with other lawmakers to grant asylum to immigrants fleeing their homes from poverty insearch of a better life.
Gidden's Structuration Theory
Giddens Structuration Theory: the theory that human behavior is based on structure (or rules and resources) and agency (to human action). This theory is often associated in social work and sociology with social written and unwritten laws and the human interactions and behaviors affected by them.
(Source: Leydesdorff, L. (2010). "The Communication of Meaning and the Structurization of Expectations: Giddens' Structurization Theory and Luhmann's Self-Organization." Journal for the American Society of Information Science and Technology, 61 (10), 2138-2150.
In social work, when working with communities, people who come into communities need to be mindful that communities are different, and have their own rules and regulations as well as ideas and attitudes that must be considered. Just because one's ideas and approach to problems in one community are well received in one community, doesn't mean that they may be well-received in another community. In fact, if one uses the same tactic in different communities, they have the potential to burn bridges.
Similarly,when a business executive moves from one company to another, he or she must observe the rules, regulation, motto, ethos and attitude of the company. Otherwise, the relationship between the executive and his subordinates will falter, and as a result, the company will suffer and be short-lived.
(Source: Leydesdorff, L. (2010). "The Communication of Meaning and the Structurization of Expectations: Giddens' Structurization Theory and Luhmann's Self-Organization." Journal for the American Society of Information Science and Technology, 61 (10), 2138-2150.
In social work, when working with communities, people who come into communities need to be mindful that communities are different, and have their own rules and regulations as well as ideas and attitudes that must be considered. Just because one's ideas and approach to problems in one community are well received in one community, doesn't mean that they may be well-received in another community. In fact, if one uses the same tactic in different communities, they have the potential to burn bridges.
Similarly,when a business executive moves from one company to another, he or she must observe the rules, regulation, motto, ethos and attitude of the company. Otherwise, the relationship between the executive and his subordinates will falter, and as a result, the company will suffer and be short-lived.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Define: Uncertainty about others makes people uncomfortable, so they are motivated to seek information about others so they feel more sure around them, and thus, more comfortable.
Riddle, B., Martin, M., & Anderson, C.
(1999). Socialization processes in groups. In Poole, M., Lawrence, F., &
Gouran, D. (Eds.), The handbook of group communication
theory and research (6) (pp. 144). Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=IRAxk7sn258C&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=uncertainty+reduction+theory+in+organizations&source=bl&ots=vgK16_-9C6&sig=P8jPve_M-GGDsDyRvS6cXvvoLhg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDcQ6AEwA2oVChMI0-G4uqO0yAIVS3E-Ch2fjw96#v=onepage&q=uncertainty%20reduction%20theory%20in%20organizations&f=false
Uncertainty reduction theory. (n.d.).
Retrieved from https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Public%20Relations%2C%20Advertising%2C%20Marketing%20and%20Consumer%20Behavior/Uncertainty_Reduction_Theory/.
Apply: We talked about how it is important
to form relationships with people when you are organizing communities.
Organizing is not just a “macro” concept, because you need interpersonal skills
to build trust and rapport. When working with members on a community project
you are involved in, they may not know how to behave in the group, and won’t
necessarily know what’s expected of them, which all leaves them with an overall
feeling of uncertainty- especially on the first time meeting. This theory would
say that people will seek to learn about each other in that group to reduce
this uncertainty, so knowing this, you, as the facilitator, may want to incorporate
some sort of activity that helps the group come together and get to know each
other.
Adapt: In the field of communication studies,
this theory could help explain communication between and among people. The
theory says people will feel uncertain of each other and that will cause them
to feel awkwardness, which they will try to correct by getting to know each
other. Those who study the ways we communicate- verbally and nonverbally- could
use this to explain why we say or do the things we say or do when interacting
with new people or studying how we communicate to make friends.
Empowerment Theory
Define: Empowerment theory is the process by which individuals and groups gain power, access to resources and control over their own lives. In doing so, they gain the ability to achieve their highest personal and collective aspirations and goals.
Macro Practice Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved October 9, 2015, from http://home.apu.edu/~ksetterlund/2012-2013/MACRO PRACTICE THEORIES.pdf
Apply: Empowerment theory can be applied to community development because when you enter into a community, it's important that you incorporate leadership development of those directly impacted by the issue you are addressing if you wish to create real systemic change. During this leadership development, those affected by the issue gain power and control over their lives through collective action, lobbying politicians, and increasing public and media awareness of the issue.
Adapt: Empowerment theory can be applied to micro practice by making sure the social worker facilitates the process of an individual gaining control over their own lives but does not create the goals themselves or make decisions for the client.
Macro Practice Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved October 9, 2015, from http://home.apu.edu/~ksetterlund/2012-2013/MACRO PRACTICE THEORIES.pdf
Apply: Empowerment theory can be applied to community development because when you enter into a community, it's important that you incorporate leadership development of those directly impacted by the issue you are addressing if you wish to create real systemic change. During this leadership development, those affected by the issue gain power and control over their lives through collective action, lobbying politicians, and increasing public and media awareness of the issue.
Adapt: Empowerment theory can be applied to micro practice by making sure the social worker facilitates the process of an individual gaining control over their own lives but does not create the goals themselves or make decisions for the client.
Cultural Hegemony- Gramsci
Define: The worldview of those in power becomes the
dominant worldview that all those under the influence of that power come to
believe and accept as common sense. Because the dominant view is understood by
the subordinate class to be “common sense,” it is internalized, and the
interests of the ruling class continue to be served.
Duncombe, S. Theory: Cultural hegemony. Retrieved from:
http://beautifultrouble.org/theory/cultural-hegemony/
Ledwith, M. (2005). Community development: A critical approach. Great Britain: The
Policy Press.
Apply: When working in a community, you should try
to identify the institution that most seems to be the “ruling class,” or that
has an influence that its constituents unknowingly succumb to. (There
are likely many different levels of institutions influencing the community, so
I can imagine identifying the one that most directly impacts people would be
difficult…)You must also determine if this institution’s imposed views are
related to the community problem. If they are, the next step involves raising
the people’s consciousness about how they have been accepting this institution’s
ideas and influence for so long that they have failed to recognize that the problem
they face is related to it.
Adapt: In the field of journalism and news
reporting, this theory is important because the media could be seen as that
dominant class, perpetuating viewpoints that people “should” believe because an
authority is telling them to. Those working in jobs where information is
distributed to the public should be aware of this theory for this reason: stay
as unbiased as possible so that people can form their own opinions. If the news
is reported in such a way that people come to understand certain themes as “common
sense” (like reports that show criminals who are people of color
more than they show white criminals) that creates a public who
is not taught to think critically or raise their consciousness.
Wednesday, October 7, 2015
Conflict Theory
3. CONFLICT THEORY: There are many different definitions to ts theory. According to Bartos and Wehr, "Park and Burgess early on described conflict theory as a struggle for status; later on, Mack and Snyder defined it as a struggle for status, scarce resources and significant social change." (Bartos, C. and Wehr, P. (2002) Using Conflict Theory. Cambridge University Press.)
In community organization, conflict theory can apply to a power struggles and conflicts when it comes to planning a program or implementing projects that seemingly benefit the community. People may have great plans, but limited space and time to use those plans. In this case, in deciding the best and most effective use of a space for a community, there will be disputes involved, as disputes are common.
Conflict theory also happens in business decisions, no matter what type of business. People have to decide what products to sell, who to target, and the style that will best attract customers. They also have to decide if they want to keep their business local, or if they want to take it international, to the masses.
Functionalism
2. FUNCTIONALISM: Theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. (Source: Kimberly Moffitt, study.com; Isejiw, W.W. (2013) Causation and Functionalism in Sociology.)
In community development, different organizations are established that work to make the community stable. For instance, there are schools that educate the children of the community, community centers to make sure kids are taken care of when their parents are still at work, parks and playgrounds are established for kids to play on and for fitness; and businesses located in the community fund schools with goods such as computers and books to make sure that kids get a top-notch education.
Functionalism works on any sports team as well. For instance, in American football, the quarterback calls the plays, defense keeps the ball from the opposing teams, running backs rush the ball to the goal, the kicker makes the extra point, and the coach helps to orchestrate the plays.
Social Capital Theory
THEORIES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
1. SOCIAL CAPITAL THEORY: The connections among individuals, social networks, and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. (Packham 150-1)
The way this theory can apply to community development work is in the form of an informal meeting a coffee date between two people, a party, networking in the gym or in the barbershops. From there, we utilize these connections to build a grassroots campaign to restore the community, bring jobs back into the community and put local out-of work residents back to work. The important thing is that there needs to be a lot of investment in the community.
Social capital theory applies to business startups as well. Whenever people have a special synergy and have an idea that will revolutionize the way the world works, they get other people who have similar ideas and believe in the grand idea. Just as in community development, a team is organized to launch businesses such as tech startups or fashion lines, and if enough peope have buy-in into the brand, the brand goes public and becomes successful.
Critical Theory
Definition: Critical theory "attributes social problems to social structures that favor certain groups in society and oppress others along lines of class, race, gender...The solution is to transform society into one in which social equality replaces dominant-subordinate relationships," (Mullaly, 2010, p. 5). Source: Mullaly, B. (2010). Challenging oppression and confronting privilege: A critical social work approach. Don Mills, Ont: Oxford University Press.
Application: Critical theory can be applied to community development work as a way of starting the process of conscientization, or consciousness raising. While organizing a community and developing its collective power to rally against some kind of social injustice, critical theory can provide a lens for diverse community members to view and identify the common structural forces that oppress and marginalize them and potentially unite them. Furthermore, critical theory can become an important part of the community visioning process for communities that place a high value on social equality.
Adaptation: Critical theory could easily be utilized in disciplines like political science or public policy. For example, policy analysts and politicians could use critical theory to identify and call attention to legislation that may appear neutral on the surface but might allow for more subtle oppressive and discriminatory practices to take place on the ground.
System Theory
Definition: Things happen not on micro but macro scale.
Apply: When don't have support and are unable to get treatment.
Adapt: System preventing employment.
Apply: When don't have support and are unable to get treatment.
Adapt: System preventing employment.
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