Definition: Bystander effect describes the phenomenon in which people observing an emergency fail to act when in the presence of other bystanders. The bystander effect is attributed to pluralistic ignorance, where bystanders assume nothing is wrong because nobody else looks concerned. (Latan, B. and Darley, J.)
Application: The bystander effect can be observed in emergency situations, for instance, a medical emergency in which no on-lookers call for help.
Adaptation: As community developers, one of our roles is to address the bystander effect, both by creating a culture of bystanders intervention, and by giving them the tools to do so in order to achieve communities of mutual care and support. An example of such an education is the "Change it Up" program recently initiated at the University of Michigan. This mandatory bystander-intervention training challenges students to recognize the causes of inaction (fear of embarrassment, uncertainty as to how to act, uncertainty as to the seriousness of the situation), and to become active bystanders when they observe their peers in potentially unsafe situations, such as excessive drinking, or expressing suicidal warning signs.
Latan, B. and Darley, J. (1970) The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn't He Help? Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prentiss Hall.
Tuesday, November 17, 2015
Parsons Action Theory
Define: Parsons defines action as “the aspects of behavior which directly concern ‘cultural-level’ systems” (p.178) these result from interactions between four subsystems, he calls the organism, the social system, the cultural system and the analytical system (Parsons, 1977). The theory presses back against the idea that there are absolute truths, even in the hard sciences, and considers all action a function of social interaction and relationship.
Apply: The theory implies that as a community developer, it is important to understand the value of relationship building and the subjective nature of action. For example, a community developer working to advocate for additional heat to a public housing building during an exceptionally cold week, may be able to work with the city to provide the help even if the residents could not afford it. Since social relationships lead to action, if the motive is compelling enough for both interested parties a formal policy or payment could be ignored.
Adapt: When applying for a job, action theory’s relationship to networking becomes evident. Since the right or perfect candidate is as much defined by subjective human relationships as it is objective facts there is a high level of importance to get to know the hiring manager or the organization. Since the action of hiring is a complex social process, a strictly objective process will likely not be used to select the new hire.
Source:
Parsons, T. (1977). Social systems and the evolution of action theory. New York: Free Press
Apply: The theory implies that as a community developer, it is important to understand the value of relationship building and the subjective nature of action. For example, a community developer working to advocate for additional heat to a public housing building during an exceptionally cold week, may be able to work with the city to provide the help even if the residents could not afford it. Since social relationships lead to action, if the motive is compelling enough for both interested parties a formal policy or payment could be ignored.
Adapt: When applying for a job, action theory’s relationship to networking becomes evident. Since the right or perfect candidate is as much defined by subjective human relationships as it is objective facts there is a high level of importance to get to know the hiring manager or the organization. Since the action of hiring is a complex social process, a strictly objective process will likely not be used to select the new hire.
Source:
Parsons, T. (1977). Social systems and the evolution of action theory. New York: Free Press
Pluralist Theory
Pluralist Theory
Definition: Pluralist Theory focus on how power is distributed. I emphasizes how a group may hold power in one or two groups but struggle within another.
Application: Understanding power dynamics within a community is crucial. Understanding the distribution of power and how it impacts those who hold power and those who don't as well as how this power is impacting issues within the community.
Adaptation: This theory is used widely in politics in understanding the weaknesses and strengths or where someone may hold power or lack it.
Definition: Pluralist Theory focus on how power is distributed. I emphasizes how a group may hold power in one or two groups but struggle within another.
Application: Understanding power dynamics within a community is crucial. Understanding the distribution of power and how it impacts those who hold power and those who don't as well as how this power is impacting issues within the community.
Adaptation: This theory is used widely in politics in understanding the weaknesses and strengths or where someone may hold power or lack it.
Popular Education
Define: Popular education is focused on the political gain of inequality, oppression, and exploitation and addressing this through community action of education tied to social justice. It is distinct from mercy work (ex: food pantry, clothing drive) in that it is focused on justice and creating an egalitarian society.
Crowther, J., Martin, I., & Shaw, M. (1999). Popular education and the struggle for democracy. Popular Education and Social Movements in Scotland Today,4.
Crowther, J., Martin, I., & Shaw, M. (1999). Popular education and the struggle for democracy. Popular Education and Social Movements in Scotland Today,4.
Apply: Biblically, it is called upon us to do justice, mercy, and faith. Nehemiah, chapters 5 and 7, gives us the tools of gathering a great assembly to do justice by holding the powerful accountable for fairness. We gather these great assemblies by learning about the injustices in a community through community members and by teaching ways to address these injustices.
Adapt: I have had a thought of creating a Children's Taskforce that is for children and by children. While I understand the dynamics of having adults making decisions, I feel our society often overlooks the child's actual perspective on their own welfare.
Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory'
Define: That behavior is learned through observing what is going within the environment (Albert Bandura, 1977), "he believed "humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences. Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work"
Application: An individuals community or environment has a huge impact on the outcomes of individuals. So its important to understand this environmental issues going in within communitties and trying to address them.
Adaptation: It can be used in a school or child development center where kids are. It can also be used in by urban planners to understand a community or region and helping to address issues that may have been generational.
Define: That behavior is learned through observing what is going within the environment (Albert Bandura, 1977), "he believed "
Application: An individuals community or environment has a huge impact on the outcomes of individuals. So its important to understand this environmental issues going in within communitties and trying to address them.
Adaptation: It can be used in a school or child development center where kids are. It can also be used in by urban planners to understand a community or region and helping to address issues that may have been generational.
Linear-stages theory
Linear-stages
theory
Define: Linear-stages theory describes development as a series of stages of economic growth. This can involve saving, foreign aid, and investment.
web.uvic.ca/~ramanik/320s/chapter4.pp
Apply: When considering community development, it could be helpful to consider linear-stages theory as it recognizes economic development as the key driver of community development. In a community which is suffering due to lack of investment or poor economic opportunity, planning for the future of the community in stages of economic development could be helpful.
Adapt: Linear stages theory can also be relevant for a single business looking to grow. By considering their financial growth in stages, from saving, investment in their own growth, and perhaps an influx of cash from an investor, the small business can grow larger.
Define: Linear-stages theory describes development as a series of stages of economic growth. This can involve saving, foreign aid, and investment.
web.uvic.ca/~ramanik/320s/chapter4.pp
Apply: When considering community development, it could be helpful to consider linear-stages theory as it recognizes economic development as the key driver of community development. In a community which is suffering due to lack of investment or poor economic opportunity, planning for the future of the community in stages of economic development could be helpful.
Adapt: Linear stages theory can also be relevant for a single business looking to grow. By considering their financial growth in stages, from saving, investment in their own growth, and perhaps an influx of cash from an investor, the small business can grow larger.
Rostow’s Stages of Growth
Rostow’s
Stages of Growth
Define: Rostow's Stages of Growth describe the stages of economic growth within a community. The five stages are: traditional society (things as they are), pre-conditions for take-off, take-off, the drive to maturity, the age of high mass consumption.
Source: web.uvic.ca/~ramanik/320s/chapter4.pp
Apply: These stages can be representative of growth within a single community, and can be useful for a community that is planning the stages of how they will move forward with developing an under-developed or impoverished sector or geographic area of the community.
Adapt: These stages of growth can be considered when looking at the growth of developing countries. While I disagree that the stages of economic growth are as linear and simple as Rostow suggests, this does provide a basic layout for how a developing country or smaller geographical area can grow economically.
Define: Rostow's Stages of Growth describe the stages of economic growth within a community. The five stages are: traditional society (things as they are), pre-conditions for take-off, take-off, the drive to maturity, the age of high mass consumption.
Source: web.uvic.ca/~ramanik/320s/chapter4.pp
Apply: These stages can be representative of growth within a single community, and can be useful for a community that is planning the stages of how they will move forward with developing an under-developed or impoverished sector or geographic area of the community.
Adapt: These stages of growth can be considered when looking at the growth of developing countries. While I disagree that the stages of economic growth are as linear and simple as Rostow suggests, this does provide a basic layout for how a developing country or smaller geographical area can grow economically.
Object-relations theory
Object-Relations Theory
Definition: Object-Relations isa variation of psychoanalytic theory that places an emphasis on the role of relationships built during infancy particularly with a mother and her child and the implications it has on later behavior. (Klein)
Application: I can be used for understanding familial dynamics whithin a community especially when working with families on a more interpersonal level. It can also be used in programming for new mothers and infancy.
Adaptation: This is a theory that is used in sociology in understanding individual relationships and bonds. it can also be used by healthcare providers who work with infants and toddlers to help educate parents and other relational figures.
Definition: Object-Relations is
Application: I can be used for understanding familial dynamics whithin a community especially when working with families on a more interpersonal level. It can also be used in programming for new mothers and infancy.
Adaptation: This is a theory that is used in sociology in understanding individual relationships and bonds. it can also be used by healthcare providers who work with infants and toddlers to help educate parents and other relational figures.
Role Theory
Define: Role theory addresses the development of the self through the roles we are socialized into and the expected behavior patterns set by the norms of our society. Role theory ties into structural functionalism and symbolic interactionism and social roles can be defined by race, ethnicity, sex, and age while achieved roles can be due to personal effort, accomplishment, or choice (Ex: wife or mother).
Source: Robbins, S., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. (2012). Contemporary human behavior theory: A critical perspective for social work (3rd ed., p. 62-65). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Apply: Roles are important in the United States and many persons use their roles to establish their identity, particularly through the work we do in our society. Recognizing the importance of roles while organizing communities is important as we work to identify and develop internal leaders. It is also important to find roles for persons that currently do not have one to ensure the movement is invested in them as well as them being invested in the movement.
Adapt: Role Theory can be used for early childhood education to change gender cultural norms. This can be by addressing hyper-masculinity at an early age or by addressing the norm of submissive females in our society.
Source: Robbins, S., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. (2012). Contemporary human behavior theory: A critical perspective for social work (3rd ed., p. 62-65). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Apply: Roles are important in the United States and many persons use their roles to establish their identity, particularly through the work we do in our society. Recognizing the importance of roles while organizing communities is important as we work to identify and develop internal leaders. It is also important to find roles for persons that currently do not have one to ensure the movement is invested in them as well as them being invested in the movement.
Adapt: Role Theory can be used for early childhood education to change gender cultural norms. This can be by addressing hyper-masculinity at an early age or by addressing the norm of submissive females in our society.
Chenery’s Model/Patterns of Development
Chenery’s
Model/Patterns of Development
Define: Chenery's Model describes economic development of a community as requiring multiple related changes to the structure of an economy.
Source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2054868?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
web.uvic.ca/~ramanik/320s/chapter4.pp
Apply: This can be applied within communities when considering how to spur economic development. Chenery's model can be related to the importance of multi-sector collaboration, and making change from different directions at once. For example, providing low-interest home loans in the housing sector while nonprofits are also working to eliminate blight and improve housing quality and home prices.
Adapt: Chenery's model can be adapted to many different areas requiring change. When trying to address health issues within a population, it makes sense to attack a problem as it is affecting people with health issues (outcome), but to also address the factors that lead to these conditions (for example, does poor access to healthy food cause obesity?).
Define: Chenery's Model describes economic development of a community as requiring multiple related changes to the structure of an economy.
Source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2054868?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
web.uvic.ca/~ramanik/320s/chapter4.pp
Apply: This can be applied within communities when considering how to spur economic development. Chenery's model can be related to the importance of multi-sector collaboration, and making change from different directions at once. For example, providing low-interest home loans in the housing sector while nonprofits are also working to eliminate blight and improve housing quality and home prices.
Adapt: Chenery's model can be adapted to many different areas requiring change. When trying to address health issues within a population, it makes sense to attack a problem as it is affecting people with health issues (outcome), but to also address the factors that lead to these conditions (for example, does poor access to healthy food cause obesity?).
Self-Authorship Theory
Define: Self-authorship is the “capacity to internally generate ones beliefs, values, identity, and relationships” (Baxter Magolda, 2009). Self-authorship utilizes a cognitive-developmental framework, and indicates that as individuals develop they pass through a series of increasingly complex stages from an external definition of the self that is defined by others to an integral definition that is generated through self-reflection.
Apply: A community developer is working with a group of high-school students to create a foster care peer support network. Realizing that most of the group has not reached self-authorship, the developer decides not to ask them directly about their vision for the group. Instead he creates a series activities where he can model to the students what this decision making process would look like and allow the students to to engage in the process in a more structured way. Instead of assuming that the students were ready to make these decisions on their own, he took time to meet the students where they were developmentally.
Adapt: In higher education, a judicial affairs officer chooses to offer a range of sanctioning options rather than a set policy for all students. This allows for the introduction of restorative justice practices that gives the officer the opportunity to co-create a plan with the student. This allows the student to learn from their action in a way that is developmentally appropriate.
Source:
Apply: A community developer is working with a group of high-school students to create a foster care peer support network. Realizing that most of the group has not reached self-authorship, the developer decides not to ask them directly about their vision for the group. Instead he creates a series activities where he can model to the students what this decision making process would look like and allow the students to to engage in the process in a more structured way. Instead of assuming that the students were ready to make these decisions on their own, he took time to meet the students where they were developmentally.
Adapt: In higher education, a judicial affairs officer chooses to offer a range of sanctioning options rather than a set policy for all students. This allows for the introduction of restorative justice practices that gives the officer the opportunity to co-create a plan with the student. This allows the student to learn from their action in a way that is developmentally appropriate.
Source:
Baxter Magolda, M.B. (2009). Promoting self-authorship to promote liberal education. Journal of College and Character, X(3), 1-6.
Decision making fatigue
Definition: Decision making fatigue theorizes that as people make decisions, the quality of their decisions deteriorates due to a specific form of psychological exhaustion. (Baumeister, R.) Decision fatigue is associated with impaired self-regulation, decision avoidance and poor or irrational decision making.
Application: Studies have shown that decision-making fatigue plays a significant role in the choices that people make; for instance, judges have been shown to be significantly less lenient to defendants later in the day, and people who have had to make more decisions have been shown to have less ability to exercise self control.
Adaptation: Decision making fatigue provides a useful insight in understanding a social cost of poverty; people with fewer resources are forced to make more decisions, each of which carry greater weight, than people with more resources and safety nets. By understanding poverty through this framework, we can better understand the psychological impact and fatigue caused by lack of financial resources.
References: Baumeister, Roy F (2003), "The Psychology of Irrationality", in Brocas, Isabelle; Carrillo, Juan D, The Psychology of Economic Decisions: Rationality and well-being, pp. 1–15, ISBN 0-19-925108-8.
Application: Studies have shown that decision-making fatigue plays a significant role in the choices that people make; for instance, judges have been shown to be significantly less lenient to defendants later in the day, and people who have had to make more decisions have been shown to have less ability to exercise self control.
Adaptation: Decision making fatigue provides a useful insight in understanding a social cost of poverty; people with fewer resources are forced to make more decisions, each of which carry greater weight, than people with more resources and safety nets. By understanding poverty through this framework, we can better understand the psychological impact and fatigue caused by lack of financial resources.
References: Baumeister, Roy F (2003), "The Psychology of Irrationality", in Brocas, Isabelle; Carrillo, Juan D, The Psychology of Economic Decisions: Rationality and well-being, pp. 1–15, ISBN 0-19-925108-8.
Marxism
Define: Marxism is the analysis of capitalism and its roots of exploitation, poverty, and alienation of people from the political, religious, and economic arenas. Marxism asserts that capitalism is not a sustainable model of economics and the increasing wage gap (class struggle) between the workers (proletariats) and the capitalists (bourgeoisie) will lead to a revolution.
Source: Robbins, S., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. (2012). Contemporary human behavior theory: A critical perspective for social work (3rd ed., p. 62-65). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Apply: Community organization largely revolves around working with the poor-working classes of our society, except for the case of the "rich people's social movement" of Citizens United. Capitalism is a system that can work for all, if heavily regulated, but has increasingly become a system by many, for few. We should be critical of the capitalist economic model to ensure that our social justice reformations have lasting impact and cannot be bought off in the current or in the future.
Adapt: For more ethical business practices and for the sake of preventing a workers' revolution, businesses should adapt ideals of Marxism for more equitable pay for labor. This is evidenced by the profits and worker satisfaction that CostCo enjoys (Cooperstein, 2013).
Source: Robbins, S., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. (2012). Contemporary human behavior theory: A critical perspective for social work (3rd ed., p. 62-65). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Apply: Community organization largely revolves around working with the poor-working classes of our society, except for the case of the "rich people's social movement" of Citizens United. Capitalism is a system that can work for all, if heavily regulated, but has increasingly become a system by many, for few. We should be critical of the capitalist economic model to ensure that our social justice reformations have lasting impact and cannot be bought off in the current or in the future.
Adapt: For more ethical business practices and for the sake of preventing a workers' revolution, businesses should adapt ideals of Marxism for more equitable pay for labor. This is evidenced by the profits and worker satisfaction that CostCo enjoys (Cooperstein, 2013).
Cooperstein, P. (2013, November 22). Why Employees Love Working For Costco. Retrieved November 18, 2015, from http://www.businessinsider.com/why-employees-love-working-for-costco-2013-11
Sociobiology Theory
White Identity Development Theory
Define: The White Racial Identity Model provides a conceptual framework for White individuals to consider their racism the model follows a theme of rejection of the concept of racism and focus on shared humanity, to a rejection of White racists, to the development of a positive anti-racist white identity.
Apply: A community organizer is attempting to build a coalition of neighbors to protest against a racist voter ID policy. She approaches members of a predominately White community and instead of immediately asking them to join in the protest she takes time to assess their developmental readiness to have conversations about their privilege or racism. Determining that many of the individuals are not developmentally ready, she decides to first invest in a community building and dialogue facilitation about the lived experience of Black individuals in the larger community and encourages them to consider racism more deeply. With appropriate challenge and support the community develops towards an understanding of anti-racist work and joins in the larger coalition to protest the voter ID law.
Apply: A community organizer is attempting to build a coalition of neighbors to protest against a racist voter ID policy. She approaches members of a predominately White community and instead of immediately asking them to join in the protest she takes time to assess their developmental readiness to have conversations about their privilege or racism. Determining that many of the individuals are not developmentally ready, she decides to first invest in a community building and dialogue facilitation about the lived experience of Black individuals in the larger community and encourages them to consider racism more deeply. With appropriate challenge and support the community develops towards an understanding of anti-racist work and joins in the larger coalition to protest the voter ID law.
Adapt: A professor teaching a history course on the 1960s and social activism notices that his white students are reluctant to talk about their privilege and are not engaging as meaningfully in the class conversation. So the professor assesses their understanding of white identity and determines that they need more time considering their own privilege. Since class discussion is not the appropriate place to come to these realizations, he gives the students a journaling assignment that includes additional reading on white privilege. He asks the students to identify the way privilege effects their lives and encourages them to meet with him to talk through the process as they come to understand what it means to be white.
Source:
Helms, J. (1990). Black and White racial identity: theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Source:
Helms, J. (1990). Black and White racial identity: theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Growth Machine Theory
Growth Machine Theory
Define: Growth Machine Theory states that power structures in communities matter in the economic development of the community; those who benefit the most from economic development are the drivers of development.
Source: http://wp.aae.wisc.edu/ced/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2013/07/economic-growth-on-line-for-CNRED.pdf
Apply: This theory is important to consider when making decision on how to spurn economic development within a community. The major players involved in the development of the community may also be benefiting economically from decisions made in regard to development. When deciding the key players in community development, this possibility should be considered as the goal is to have economic development that benefits all.
Adapt: This can also be adapted to businesses within a specific geographic who are buying up properties for further development in order to grow their businesses. Those who have the most resources and power at their disposal will be the strongest forces of change within that geographic area.
Apply: This theory is important to consider when making decision on how to spurn economic development within a community. The major players involved in the development of the community may also be benefiting economically from decisions made in regard to development. When deciding the key players in community development, this possibility should be considered as the goal is to have economic development that benefits all.
Adapt: This can also be adapted to businesses within a specific geographic who are buying up properties for further development in order to grow their businesses. Those who have the most resources and power at their disposal will be the strongest forces of change within that geographic area.
Broken Windows Theory
Definition: Broken Windows is a theory of criminal justice/policing that suggests that strict enforcement of low-level crimes, such as turn-stile hopping and public drinking, can prevent an atmosphere of lawlessness and more serious and violent crimes. (Wilson, J. and Kelling, G.)
Application: Broken Windows theory has been used to inform the model of policing in many cities in the U.S., including New York and Los Angeles.
Adaptation: Broken Windows policing has a huge impact on many low-income communities; in cities like New York, the practice of Broken Windows policing means that many more people have criminal records for low-level offenses, impacting their ability to find housing and employment, become foster-parents, and qualify for public assistance programs. This destabilizes neighborhoods, making it more difficult to develop healthy and economically secure communities.
References:
Application: Broken Windows theory has been used to inform the model of policing in many cities in the U.S., including New York and Los Angeles.
Adaptation: Broken Windows policing has a huge impact on many low-income communities; in cities like New York, the practice of Broken Windows policing means that many more people have criminal records for low-level offenses, impacting their ability to find housing and employment, become foster-parents, and qualify for public assistance programs. This destabilizes neighborhoods, making it more difficult to develop healthy and economically secure communities.
References:
Wilson, J. and Kelling, G. L. (1982) Broken Windows: The Police and Neighborhood Safety. Atlantic Monthly, 29, 38.
Critical Mass Theory
Define: Critical mass is a socio-dynamic concept that has been defined broadly across a number of social science fields to refer to the minimum amount of individuals necessary for a social action to occur. Oliver & Marwell (1988) go further to suggest that for collective action a critical mass of interest isn’t enough and that effective action also requires a certain amount of resource and/or power to take place.
Apply: A neighborhood on the edge of town wants to alter the bus route to serve more members of their community and they start by gathering for a town hall meeting to discuss the new route. All the community members are in favor of the change, but they do not have the power or the resources to make it happen. But, a community developer comes in to aid the project and connects the community to their local city council member who has the power to advocate for a new route. This example illustrates that interest is not sufficient, and that community organizers must also mobilize power and resources for action to occur.
Adapt: A local bank needs an additional $100,000 in their reserves to feel comfortable paying to open a second branch in town. To reach their critical mass the bank could reach out to 100 of their clients who interested in putting an additional $1000 in their account or they could find ten new clients who each want to put $10,000 into saving. The example illustrates that critical mass can be thought of both in terms of people and also in terms of power or resources.
Sources:
Oliver, P.E. & Marwell, G. (1988). The paradox of group size in collective action: A theory of the critical mass. II. American Sociological Review 53(1), 1-8.
Apply: A neighborhood on the edge of town wants to alter the bus route to serve more members of their community and they start by gathering for a town hall meeting to discuss the new route. All the community members are in favor of the change, but they do not have the power or the resources to make it happen. But, a community developer comes in to aid the project and connects the community to their local city council member who has the power to advocate for a new route. This example illustrates that interest is not sufficient, and that community organizers must also mobilize power and resources for action to occur.
Adapt: A local bank needs an additional $100,000 in their reserves to feel comfortable paying to open a second branch in town. To reach their critical mass the bank could reach out to 100 of their clients who interested in putting an additional $1000 in their account or they could find ten new clients who each want to put $10,000 into saving. The example illustrates that critical mass can be thought of both in terms of people and also in terms of power or resources.
Sources:
Oliver, P.E. & Marwell, G. (1988). The paradox of group size in collective action: A theory of the critical mass. II. American Sociological Review 53(1), 1-8.
World Polity Theory
Define: World Polity Theory describes transnational interaction and global social change as norming that results from structural processes from the top down rather than functional processes from the ground up (i.e. industrialization/ modernization). In it, “social actors and associated structures and behaviors are viewed as shaped by the broader environment” while “other actors are embedded in a cultural context that frames and determines their identity, structure, and behavior” (McNeely, 2012).
Apply: World Polity theory suggests that commonly accepted community development approaches are likely working towards a global norm that keeps certain members of society oppressed. For example international aid or welfare strategies often help to mitigate conflict, but do not work towards changing norms and ultimately keep certain individuals in power. An individual working with a community that is at the periphery of power, such as the African American community, must be cognizant that that their community “solutions” may not be solutions at all and could be limiting these individuals from obtaining greater power.
Apply: World Polity theory suggests that commonly accepted community development approaches are likely working towards a global norm that keeps certain members of society oppressed. For example international aid or welfare strategies often help to mitigate conflict, but do not work towards changing norms and ultimately keep certain individuals in power. An individual working with a community that is at the periphery of power, such as the African American community, must be cognizant that that their community “solutions” may not be solutions at all and could be limiting these individuals from obtaining greater power.
Adapt: Within global politics, World Polity suggests that all nations (particularly those in power) are constantly norming towards each other. As a global actor in this theory, the United States needs to be mindful of how its policies send a message for other nations to follow. Particularly, the U.S. and other nations need to be mindful of how they define and stick to commitments to fuel and power usage. By continuing to neglect policies, these nations are setting a global norm that will lead to damaging levels of carbon in the atmosphere, resulting in global warming.
Sources:
McNeely, C. L. (2012). World Polity Theory. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization.
Sources:
McNeely, C. L. (2012). World Polity Theory. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization.
Meritocracy
Definition: Meritocracy refers to a system in which "the talented are chosen and moved ahead on the basis of their achievement."
Application: The United States is commonly understood to be a meritocratic society, in which success can be achieved through hard work, intelligence and strong character. This assumption however has been increasingly facing push-back by critics who point to rising disparities in wealth, education and health outcomes.
Adaptation: It is important for social workers and people working for socially just community development to have an understanding of inequality that acknowledges historical and structural causes of wealth disparities, rather than assuming issues facing low-income communities are the result of cultural or biological failings.
Application: The United States is commonly understood to be a meritocratic society, in which success can be achieved through hard work, intelligence and strong character. This assumption however has been increasingly facing push-back by critics who point to rising disparities in wealth, education and health outcomes.
Adaptation: It is important for social workers and people working for socially just community development to have an understanding of inequality that acknowledges historical and structural causes of wealth disparities, rather than assuming issues facing low-income communities are the result of cultural or biological failings.
Garbage Can Theory
Define: Garbage-can theory describes an organizational tool whereby leaders create a space for participants to discuss “issues and feelings looking for decision situations in which they might be aired, solutions looking for issues to which they might be the answer, and decision makers looking for work" (Cohen, March, & Olsen, 1972). A garbage can is useful in anarchical or highly egalitarian groups where every member wants to voice their problems and creates a space where many problems can be brought to the table without the need to address all of them (Cohen & March 1974).
Apply: In Community Development working with a large community can bring chaos if everyone has an individual concern they want solved. Rather than focus on all the individual needs, a “garbage can” could be used to allow community members a chance to voice their concerns through an event like an open town hall meeting. This allows participants to voice their complaints without an expectation of action on all of the concerns. Ultimately the goal is to sift through smaller issues and get to larger goals that affect more members of the community (while being careful not to completely dismiss any ideas or openly refer to the session as a “garbage can” space).
Adapt: In a university, faculty often function on an egalitarian basis where they all have an equal voice in decision making. Because of this many faculty members feel a need to have all of their problems heard and considered. On campus, the faculty senate could be referred to as a “garbage can” space, since it allows for faculty to come together and voice complaints, but most senates have very little authority to take action. The faculty senate is about creating space to be heard rather than moving towards action and allows the community the opportunity to burn off steam.
Sources:
Cohen, M. D., March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (1972). A garbage can model of organizational choice. Administrative science quarterly, 1-25.
Cohen, M. D. & J.G. March. (1974). Leadership in an organized anarchy. In Leadership and Ambiguity: The American College President (2nd Ed.) pp. 195-229 . Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Biopower
Definition: Biopower, a social theory developed by French theorist Michel Foucault describes the practice of state regulation of subjects through "an explosion of numerous and diverse techniques for achieving the subjugations of bodies and the control of populations." (Foucault, M.) It refers to the function of modern governments to manage populations through the use of public health and other social programs; biopower is enacted not through a "top-down" model, but is "diffuse, unstable, local and embedded in our everyday practices, working in and flowing through the micropractices of institutions." This idea is described as an effort to "make live and let die," as opposed to state discipline which could be described as "let live and make die."
Application: Foucault described biopower as operating in sites such as public health and sexuality education efforts; for instance, public health responses to youth sexuality can be seen as an effort to manage the sexual behaviors of young people in order to achieve sexual health, and to promote sexuality that supports reproduction and family.
Adaptation: The concept of biopower has important implications for social work; it encourages us to understand so-called objective and evidence-based social work interventions as forwarding particular political and social norms and values. For instance, traditional drug-treatment and prevention programs have defined success in terms of sobriety, recovery, and achievement in terms of self-sufficiency and independence. Harm-reduction models, however, advocate for minimizing the harm that drug-abuse can cause through needle-sharing and other systems. Using Foucault's biopower analysis, we can understand that, rather than merely being based on objective measure of success, the prioritization of sobriety and recovery based models reflects a societal norm.
References:
Foucault, M. The History of Sexuality. 1983.
Application: Foucault described biopower as operating in sites such as public health and sexuality education efforts; for instance, public health responses to youth sexuality can be seen as an effort to manage the sexual behaviors of young people in order to achieve sexual health, and to promote sexuality that supports reproduction and family.
Adaptation: The concept of biopower has important implications for social work; it encourages us to understand so-called objective and evidence-based social work interventions as forwarding particular political and social norms and values. For instance, traditional drug-treatment and prevention programs have defined success in terms of sobriety, recovery, and achievement in terms of self-sufficiency and independence. Harm-reduction models, however, advocate for minimizing the harm that drug-abuse can cause through needle-sharing and other systems. Using Foucault's biopower analysis, we can understand that, rather than merely being based on objective measure of success, the prioritization of sobriety and recovery based models reflects a societal norm.
References:
Foucault, M. The History of Sexuality. 1983.
Sociometer Theory
Definition: The theory proposes that self-esteem is a barometer of one’s perceived past, present, and future relational value. Therefore, people high in self-esteem (HSEs) feel that they were, are, and will be valued by others, whereas people low in self-esteem (LSEs), doubt they will be.
Anthony, D. B., Wood, J. V., & Holmes, J. G. (2007). Testing sociometer theory: Self-esteem and the importance of acceptance for social decision-making. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(3), 425-432.
Application: This theory is useful in community development because organizers need to understand their community on a clinical, interpersonal level. Therefore, by understanding how self-esteem relates to past, present, and future value is important to relate to motivation and engagement in an organization. This theory can also be useful for a organizer to use with themselves to understand how their self-esteem is affecting their perceived value to others.
Adaptation: This theory can be adapted to educational domains. In elementary school, teachers can work on improving their students self-esteems so that they will perceive their relational value as being high and want to work in groups and collaborate with others more in the future.
Anthony, D. B., Wood, J. V., & Holmes, J. G. (2007). Testing sociometer theory: Self-esteem and the importance of acceptance for social decision-making. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(3), 425-432.
Application: This theory is useful in community development because organizers need to understand their community on a clinical, interpersonal level. Therefore, by understanding how self-esteem relates to past, present, and future value is important to relate to motivation and engagement in an organization. This theory can also be useful for a organizer to use with themselves to understand how their self-esteem is affecting their perceived value to others.
Adaptation: This theory can be adapted to educational domains. In elementary school, teachers can work on improving their students self-esteems so that they will perceive their relational value as being high and want to work in groups and collaborate with others more in the future.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Definition: The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasion is a dual process theory that describes how attitudes form and change. It aims to explain different ways of processing stimuli, why they are used, and their outcomes on attitude change. The two distinct routes of persuasion are central and peripheral.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (pp. 1-24). Springer New York.
Application: In community development, it is necessary for community organizers to understand their communities involvement. If the involvement is low, the number of arguments are more important than having a weak or strong argument. However, if the community is involved, it is important to use a lot of strong arguments, and if your arguments are weak, only say a few things.
Adaptation: This theory can be used in political debates. Knowing the difference between central and peripheral persuasion routes are important because the usefulness of certain factors such as the number of arguments, and using weak or strong arguments depend on the involvement (low/high) of the listeners. If people are only listening for a small amount of time such as through a commercial, in which they are distracted by other things, it is important for politicians to say as much as possible and does not depend strongly on the level of arguments.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (pp. 1-24). Springer New York.
Application: In community development, it is necessary for community organizers to understand their communities involvement. If the involvement is low, the number of arguments are more important than having a weak or strong argument. However, if the community is involved, it is important to use a lot of strong arguments, and if your arguments are weak, only say a few things.
Adaptation: This theory can be used in political debates. Knowing the difference between central and peripheral persuasion routes are important because the usefulness of certain factors such as the number of arguments, and using weak or strong arguments depend on the involvement (low/high) of the listeners. If people are only listening for a small amount of time such as through a commercial, in which they are distracted by other things, it is important for politicians to say as much as possible and does not depend strongly on the level of arguments.
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Definition: The theory is a life-span theory of motivation and pursuit of social goals based on time. The theory states that when time is perceived as limited, emotional goals are heightened. When time constraints are put into place, social goals change.
Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. American psychologist, 54(3), 165.
Application: This theory is important in community development because the communities goals can change due to time constraints; therefore, goals for an organization may differ if the community feels their time is limited. Therefore, organizers should be aware of how they talk about their projects, for example, so they can receive goals that are either emotional or non-emotional depending on the need of the community.
Adaptation: This theory can also be used in medical domains. For example, if patients are asked about their goals after being told they have a terminal illness, the goals will be more emotional compared to asking them after talking about something not relating to their time left alive.
Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. American psychologist, 54(3), 165.
Application: This theory is important in community development because the communities goals can change due to time constraints; therefore, goals for an organization may differ if the community feels their time is limited. Therefore, organizers should be aware of how they talk about their projects, for example, so they can receive goals that are either emotional or non-emotional depending on the need of the community.
Adaptation: This theory can also be used in medical domains. For example, if patients are asked about their goals after being told they have a terminal illness, the goals will be more emotional compared to asking them after talking about something not relating to their time left alive.
Tend and Befriend Theory
Definition: Human beings affiliate in response to stress. Under conditions of threat, they tend to offspring to ensure their survival and connect with others (befriend) for joint protection and comfort.
Taylor, S. (2011). Tend and befriend theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 1, 32-49
.
Application: Human beings have the need to have contact with others to ensure safety from threat. Therefore, for community development, it is important to understand the intrinsic motivation behind organizing, one reason may be due to threat such as a natural disaster. Community organizers can also use this theory to understand the opportunities behind organizing after a stressful situation.
Adaptation: This theory can be used in medical disciplines. Hospitals should make sure that patients can interact and feel comfort from other patients because being in the hospital is often a threatening place due to loss of autonomy or fear of death.
Taylor, S. (2011). Tend and befriend theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 1, 32-49
.
Application: Human beings have the need to have contact with others to ensure safety from threat. Therefore, for community development, it is important to understand the intrinsic motivation behind organizing, one reason may be due to threat such as a natural disaster. Community organizers can also use this theory to understand the opportunities behind organizing after a stressful situation.
Adaptation: This theory can be used in medical disciplines. Hospitals should make sure that patients can interact and feel comfort from other patients because being in the hospital is often a threatening place due to loss of autonomy or fear of death.
Language Expectancy Theory
Definition: The language expectancy theory explains how choices in vocabulary and tone can influence how persuasive a person/community/agency's message is. The reaction as well as response that the person receiving the message has can influence whether the person/entity delivering the message accomplishes their goal. This means that the person delivering the message has to be tactful and adopt strategies to produced the desired response. The theory was first developed by Brooks in 1970 and then further developed by Burgoon 1995.
Application: This theory can be applied to community development work because the language we use to interact with the community as change agents can make or break our relationship with a community. Critically choosing the words we use in our messages and considering how our tone can be perceived by communities could mean the difference between a successful or unsuccessful campaign.
Adaptation: I think this theory can be adapted to ALL other disciplines outside social work or community development. As individuals, we should be more conscious of the language and tone we use and the same applies to agencies/businesses. With how prevalent the use of social media is right now, it's especially important to be hyper-vigilant to avoid unfavorable reactions and/or "bad publicity" from folks receiving the messages.
Source: https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Communication%20Processes/Language_Expectancy_Theory/
Application: This theory can be applied to community development work because the language we use to interact with the community as change agents can make or break our relationship with a community. Critically choosing the words we use in our messages and considering how our tone can be perceived by communities could mean the difference between a successful or unsuccessful campaign.
Adaptation: I think this theory can be adapted to ALL other disciplines outside social work or community development. As individuals, we should be more conscious of the language and tone we use and the same applies to agencies/businesses. With how prevalent the use of social media is right now, it's especially important to be hyper-vigilant to avoid unfavorable reactions and/or "bad publicity" from folks receiving the messages.
Source: https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Communication%20Processes/Language_Expectancy_Theory/
Theory of Planned Behavior
Definition: Attitude toward behavior, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control create an individual's behavioral intentions and behaviors.
Ajzen, I. (2011). Theory of planned behavior. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Vol One, 1, 438-459.
Application: Theory of Planned Behavior can be used in community development because it can help predict individual's intention and explain human behavior. Furthermore, the theory of planned behavior can help explain the individual's behavior because the equation (part of the theory) includes "social norm" as an important variable.
Adaptation: This theory can be used in dietary domains as well. For example, if someone has a positive attitude towards their nutritional behavior as well as perceived social pressure that they should be eating healthier, it will create better nutrition behaviors.
Ajzen, I. (2011). Theory of planned behavior. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Vol One, 1, 438-459.
Application: Theory of Planned Behavior can be used in community development because it can help predict individual's intention and explain human behavior. Furthermore, the theory of planned behavior can help explain the individual's behavior because the equation (part of the theory) includes "social norm" as an important variable.
Adaptation: This theory can be used in dietary domains as well. For example, if someone has a positive attitude towards their nutritional behavior as well as perceived social pressure that they should be eating healthier, it will create better nutrition behaviors.
Excitation-Transfer Theory
Definition: The theory states that the intensification of emotional states could be due to highly arousing, but perhaps unrelated experiences. The theory involves the assumptions that (a) critical components of an exciting response decrease slowly and often remain even after the individual has returned from the situation cognitively (b) the individual characteristically does not distinguish between the excitation that are due to prior event and present stimulation.
Cantor, J. R., Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1975). Enhancement of experienced sexual arousal in response to erotic stimuli through misattribution of unrelated residual excitation. Journal of personality and social psychology, 32(1), 69.
Application: This theory can be used in community development to create excitement for a new event. For example, an organizer can use a stimulating event as a push-off for a new event that they want the community to be excited about. The excitement will still remain and the community will not be able to distinguish if the excitement is for the old event or the new one.
Adaptation: This theory can also be used in an educational setting. For example, teachers can introduce a topic that may be essential to the student's learning but may not be appealing to the students right after a exciting event such as recess or something that created an intensification of joyful emotions such as a class party. That way, the students will still have components of the exciting response and will be excited about the topic.
Cantor, J. R., Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1975). Enhancement of experienced sexual arousal in response to erotic stimuli through misattribution of unrelated residual excitation. Journal of personality and social psychology, 32(1), 69.
Application: This theory can be used in community development to create excitement for a new event. For example, an organizer can use a stimulating event as a push-off for a new event that they want the community to be excited about. The excitement will still remain and the community will not be able to distinguish if the excitement is for the old event or the new one.
Adaptation: This theory can also be used in an educational setting. For example, teachers can introduce a topic that may be essential to the student's learning but may not be appealing to the students right after a exciting event such as recess or something that created an intensification of joyful emotions such as a class party. That way, the students will still have components of the exciting response and will be excited about the topic.
Feelings-as-information theory
Definition: The theory proposed by Norbert Schwarz (professor at U of M!) explains the cognitive consequences of affect. When people make judgments about a target, they rely upon their subjective experiences (including moods, emotions, metacognitive experiences, and bodily sensations) as factual information about the target of judgment.
Schwarz, N. (2011). Feelings-as-information theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 1, 289-308.
Application: Using this theory in community development, it is a good idea to lift people's moods when they are first come to a meeting. For example, playing uplifting music when the community comes into the room will lead them to be in a better mood and judge the organization and the presenters in a more positive way.
Adaptation: Using this theory in the dating world, when people are in a better mood, they will rate the target of judgment (the date) in a more positive manner. For example, if one goes on a date on a sunny day, they will feel better and report that the date went better. Likewise, if they hold a hot drink on a date, they will feel more warmly about the other person than holding a cold drink.
Schwarz, N. (2011). Feelings-as-information theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 1, 289-308.
Application: Using this theory in community development, it is a good idea to lift people's moods when they are first come to a meeting. For example, playing uplifting music when the community comes into the room will lead them to be in a better mood and judge the organization and the presenters in a more positive way.
Adaptation: Using this theory in the dating world, when people are in a better mood, they will rate the target of judgment (the date) in a more positive manner. For example, if one goes on a date on a sunny day, they will feel better and report that the date went better. Likewise, if they hold a hot drink on a date, they will feel more warmly about the other person than holding a cold drink.
Equity Theory in Close Relationships
Definition: People feel most comfortable when they are getting exactly what they deserve from their relationships - no more and no less. In personal relationships, two concerns that stand out: how rewarding are one's societal, family, and work relationships? How fair and equitable are those relationships?
Hatfield, E., & Rapson, R. L. (2011). Equity theory in close relationships. Handbook of theories of Social Psychology, 2, 200-217.
Application: In community development, community organizers must understand how individuals function in close relationships, that is what they are giving and getting out of the relationships. I think organizers can use this theory among their organization and staff that they work with. For example, if the relationship is not equitable, it will not function at its highest ability.
Adaptation: This theory is used in social psychology and in clinical settings. This theory can also be used in professional work settings because relationships become close when working with someone every day of the week, and understanding the dynamic between the staff by using equity theory is important.
Hatfield, E., & Rapson, R. L. (2011). Equity theory in close relationships. Handbook of theories of Social Psychology, 2, 200-217.
Application: In community development, community organizers must understand how individuals function in close relationships, that is what they are giving and getting out of the relationships. I think organizers can use this theory among their organization and staff that they work with. For example, if the relationship is not equitable, it will not function at its highest ability.
Adaptation: This theory is used in social psychology and in clinical settings. This theory can also be used in professional work settings because relationships become close when working with someone every day of the week, and understanding the dynamic between the staff by using equity theory is important.
Collective Impact
Define: Collective impact occurs when
organizations from different sectors come together to accomplish a common goal.
For collective impact to be applied properly, the organizations must have a
common agenda, shared measurements of success, mutually reinforcing activities,
continuous communication, and a strong backbone organization to handle
administrative duties and keep organizations on task.
Source: http://collectiveimpactforum.org/what-collective-impact
Apply: An example of the
Collective Impact Model can be seen in Washtenaw County with the Washtenaw Health
Initiative. The “headquarters” of this coalition are housed within the Center
for Healthcare Research and Transformation, which serves as the backbone
organization. Common health needs in the community are identified and addressed
through multi-sector collaboration, including health systems, the public health
department, payers, educators, philanthropy organizations, clinics, public
bodies (such as city councils and county administration), housing
organizations, faith organizations, and so on. Employees of these services
volunteer their time to community projects which address common health
concerns; each project has specified goals to be accomplished, and the
organizations from these sectors all contribute time, expertise, and community
reach to accomplish these goals.
Adapt: Collective impact could – and should
- be utilized within government frameworks to promote collaborative and
informed approaches to problems faced within governed geographic regions. By
working formally with non-profit groups, research organizations, health care
providers, educators, and others, governing administrations receive more informed
feedback and community buy-in when attempting change.
Democratic Peace Theory
Democratic Peace Theory
Definition- A theory from the discipline of international relations that claims liberal or democratic are less likely to become involved in militarized disputes and rarely, if ever, go to war.
Apply- Social workers need to understand democratic peace theory because it is the basis of much foreign policy, including Bush’s forging policy post 9/11. Democratic piece theory is being problematized in academic circles but continues to be a stronghold in international relations. Social workers can do advocacy work by explaining and problematizing this theory at the community and policy levels.
Adapt- This theory is often used in policy making. If liberal or democratic states are less likely to go to war, then such states should be sought out as allies and partners. Additionally, if this theory holds true then non-liberal/ non-democratic states should be encouraged to change their system in order to obtain peace.
Gat, A.. (2005). The Democratic Peace Theory Reframed: The Impact of Modernity. World Politics, 58(1), 73–100. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/stable/40060125
Self-verification theory
Self-verification theory
Definition- A social psychology theory that proposes that people want to be seen by others in a way that matches themselves they view themselves. Their self-view could be positive or negative, it is the continuity between self-view and the way others see them that is preferred.
Apply- Social workers should be aware of this theory as a tool to build relationships and community. People strive for self-verification, which means they will act in a way that prompts others to see the individual as the individual sees themselves, and understanding this motivation could be crucial for a social worker. Additionally, people do not like to have their self view completely disagreed with, so any change that a social worker aims to make concerning an individual’s self-view must be gradual.
Adapt- This theory could be used by anyone working in a social profession. For example, lawyers may wish to build rapport with clients by initially verifying their self-view. This theory can be used to build relationships between individuals and groups.
Swann Jr, W. B. (2011). Self-verification theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 2, 23-42.
Theory of Justice
Theory of Justice
Definition- In an ideal setting in which no one was aware of their social and personal characteristics and no one had a vested interest in the outcome (original state), people should be able to agree on general concepts of fairness for society. Every person in society has an equal right to the same liberties and inequalities must reasonably benefit all people.
Apply- A community can use Rawls’ two principles of justice when creating new contracts or systems. These principles are 1. Every person has access to extensive basic liberty that is compatible with other people having similar liberty, and 2. Any social or economic inequalities (ie having a group leader) are to be arranged in a way that is to everyone’s advantage and that these positions are open to all. These would be a core consideration for a group creating a governance structure.
Adapt- This theory could easily be applied to the financial world. Instead of focusing business for individual financial gain, the principles of justice could be applied to ensure that everyone is equally financially viable. Instead of working to gain value for the individual or shareholder, work to gain value for society at large.
Rawls, J. (2009). A theory of justice. Harvard university press.
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