The Alinsky Model

Definition: The Alinsky Model is a conflict-oriented form of community organizing developed by Saul Alinsky in Chicago in the 1930s. "Alinsky's type of organizing is based on building political power and using it to confront authority - generally through employing social action - and, if necessary, force those in power to negotiate. This kind of organizing is still widely used and still effective, especially in situations where power has long been in the same hands." Source: Section 4. Social Action. (n.d.). Community Tool Box. Retrieved from http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/assessment/promotion-strategies/systems-advocacy-and-community-organizing/main

Application: The Alinksy Model is an important tool for community developers, especially when working with communities who have historically and continue to hold little power. A great example of applying the Alinsky Model that is extremely relevant right now in community development efforts is organizing large numbers of parents and other community stakeholders in a low-income community to show up at their community's school board meeting to put pressure on the board to concretely address the presence of police officers in schools.    

Adaptation: The Alinsky Model can be easily applied to the context of education, specifically in terms of making student voice heard. For example, many student groups at universities across the country have used the Alinsky model to demand lower tuition and greater university transparency. Because of the power imbalance between the administration and the students, conflict-oriented tactics are often the only way to get the administration to really listen. 

Theory of Democracy

Definition: "Democracy, or 'rule by the people,' is an egalitarian form of government in which all citizens of a nation determine public policy, the laws, and the actions of their state together, requiring that all citizens have an equal opportunity to express their opinion." Source: Boundless. "Theories of Democracy." Boundless Sociology. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved from https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/government-15/democracy-115/theories-of-democracy-642-10474/ 

Application: Democratic theory is imperative to community development work - most often, underserved and oppressed communities that developers primarily work in have been robbed of their right to fully participate in the American democratic system on a number of levels. This has two implications for community developers: 1) to ensure that they do replicate systemic oppressions in their work with communities and to approach community work from democratic philosophy that allows all community members to fully engage in the community development work, and 2) to use community development as a tool to push for making democratic theory a reality in the United States. 

Adaptation: I think it would be interesting to apply the theory of democracy to the medical field. Because doctors are portrayed as all-knowing experts, many patients hesitate to question their doctor's recommendations or diagnoses - some doctors, even, do not openly welcome patient input or opinions. If the medical field took a more democratic approach to their medical practice with patients, I think that patient-doctor relationships could improve and become more of a partnership, giving patients a stronger sense of control and empowerment over their health.  

Stimulation Theory

Define: Moderate levels of stimulation in the physical environment lead to positive human behavior. Both the stimulus itself and the meaning people construct regarding the stimulus are important; the concrete and the symbolic can both create positive behavior.
Hutchison, K. (2015). The physical environment. In The multiple dimensions of environment (7). Retrieved from
https://us.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/64461_Hutchison_Chapter_7.pdf

Apply: Physical environment is not something I immediately think of when I think of community development. But the setting of community meetings will matter, because it can influence participant behavior, according to this theory. For example, after my experience in the class so far this semester, I would always want to bring a breakfast food and coffee to a morning meeting. Both the stimulant of the taste of the items will lead to positive behavior, as well as the (hopefully) positive feeling of welcome and warmth that people will construct because of my action of bringing food and coffee.

Adapt: Architects may want to consider this theory when designing spaces. Things like sunlight, openness, comfortable seating, and/or low noise levels are probably going to be important to a building that will primarily be used as a meeting space. Keeping in mind that these stimulants should be at a moderate level for human behavior to be conducive to meetings would be a crucial step in designing and building a structure.

Social Planning

Definition: Social planning is "a local, democratic system for setting priorities, arriving at equitable compromises and taking action. It supports community needs and interests in social, cultural, economic, and environmental affairs. It is a process for building a community well being."

Planning, S. (1993). A citizen's guide to community social planning. Social Planning &
Research Council of British Columbia.

Application: Community organizers can use this collaborative approach when working with stakeholders (individuals and organizations) to determine next steps and priorities. Social planning helps to establish a collective voice and stance on issues that are affecting the community. It encourages heavy involvement and input from multiple groups.

Adaptation: Social planning can be used in when creating campaign for office. A rising a official would use this approach to gain insight what issues are important to voters. They would then establish a plan based on their findings that included potential solutions to those problems. 

Collaboration Theory

Definition: "Collaboration is a process of joint decision making among key stakeholders of a problem domain about the future of that domain" (p. 187). 

Jamal, T., & Stronza, A. (2009). Collaboration theory and tourism practice in protected areas: Stakeholders, structuring and sustainability. Journal of Sustainable tourism, 17(2), 169-189.

Application: This theory can be used in community development work to develop shared visions and resolve conflict. Stakeholders use collaborating to figure out the pros of working together on issues that effect the community.

Adaptation: Teachers can use this theory in classrooms to foster learning and teamwork with students. For example, creating a group project about how they would like their classroom to be set up. The teacher can then take into account their input and help them to create a shared vision for the space.  

Narrative Therapy

Theory - Narrative Therapy

Definition - Narrative Therapy is used in clinical and community work and assumes that individuals are experts in their own lives. Narrative Therapy also separates problems from people and assumes that people have skills and talents that they can use to change their relationships to their problems.

Narrative Therapy Centre of Toronto. (n.d.). About Narrative Therapy Retrieved from http://www.narrativetherapycentre.com/narrative.html

Application - Narrative Therapy can be used in community work through helping the community inventory their own strengths and by consulting with the community on the problems they face to ensure that solutions to problems are driven by:
1. What the community says their problems are and
2. The strengths, skills, and talents of the community
Narrative Therapy will also help the community separate the problems they face from their identity and create a critical consciousness around what creates problems in their communities.

Alternative Application - Narrative therapy can be used in therapy with individuals in much the same way. It empowers individuals to construct their own solutions to problems that are external to them and allows them to inventory their own strengths that can be used to change their relationship to the problems they face.

Solution Focused Practice Model

Theory - Solution Focused Practice Model

Definition - In the solution focused practice model, you start by visualizing the solution and then come up with the steps to lead to the solution. It helps to imagine the best case scenario to be able to aim high in coming to a good solution.

Augsburg.edu. (n.d.). Theories, Models, and Perspectives: A Cheat Sheet for Field Instructors. Retrieved from http://web.augsburg.edu/socialwork/msw/pdfs/cheatsheet.pdf

Application - This could be used in community development by working with the community to envision what their perfect community would look like and then work to fill in the steps it would take to get to the end goal. This would help in strategic planning to ensure that all of the goals of the community are addressed at the earliest planning stages.

Alternative application - In designing a higher education curriculum, adminstrators could work with students to envision what the goals of a four year degree should be and what students should be able to accomplish in terms of their thinking skills when they graduate. The curriculum could be developed based on what the end goals of what students should be able to do.

Task Centered Practice Model

Theory - Task Centered Practice Model

Definition - The task centered practice model, frequently used in therapeutic relationships, refers to breaking down a large task into smaller, more manageable tasks that are easier to accomplish.

Augsburg.edu. (n.d.). Theories, Models, and Perspectives: A Cheat Sheet for Field Instructors. Retrieved from http://web.augsburg.edu/socialwork/msw/pdfs/cheatsheet.pdf


Application - In community development, using the task centered practice model would be helpful. This is essentially a well-developed logic model, in which one large goal is broken down into inputs, outputs, and outcomes. Using the task centered model could break down one large, somewhat overwhelming, development project into more manageable bites.

Alternative application - In construction, rather than thinking of finishing building a house as one large project, it would be critical to break down the project into discrete parts such as drywalling, electrical engineering, and insulating. This will minimize confusion and make sure the project flows smoothly with a concrete plan, rather than many actors operating in a confusing manor with little communication between the actors. This is why having a skilled contractor is important.

Problem Solving Practice Model

Theory - Problem solving practice model

Definition - Commonly used in the therapeutic context, problem solving refers to understanding a problem and then brainstorming solutions and then having the client (or community) choose the best option.

Augsburg.edu. (n.d.). Theories, Models, and Perspectives: A Cheat Sheet for Field Instructors. Retrieved from http://web.augsburg.edu/socialwork/msw/pdfs/cheatsheet.pdf

Application - If there is a community development problem that comes up, such as having too many priorities and not having enough resources to meet the goals of each priority, you could use the problem solving model. First, as a community, you could brainstorm to prioritize projects and then how to get resources into the most important projects. Finally, this will help create an action plan to get the priorities done.

Adaptation - This could be done in therapy if a client has a problem such as not knowing what to do to resolve a client with a family member. The client and the therapist can work together to come up with possibilities to resolve the conflict and then the client can choose the option they think will be the most effective.

Dichotomous, or black and white thinking

Theory: dichotomous thinking

Definition: A concept from mental health practice in which an individual tends to view the world as "black and white" and is only capable of seeing the extremes in a situation. They tend to see the world as all good or all bad.

Salters-Pedneault, K. (2014) Dichotomous Thinking. Retrieved from http://bpd.about.com/od/glossary/g/dichot.htm

Application: In the community development setting, this theory could be applied if a community was getting discouraged by lack of "big victories." If a community only saw success as getting every single one of their goals met, then they might easily get discouraged if the change happened more incrementally or slowly. An organizer could help the community to see partial victories in a more positive light.

Alternative application: in treating someone with an eating disorder, a clinician could help their client learn how to look at themselves more positively if the individual thought they were failures for not being "perfect enough" or "skinny enough." Using cognitive behavioral therapy in this context could help the client be more content with where they're at and not think so much in dichotomous way.

Stakeholder Theory

Definition: Stakeholder theory is about how “the purpose of a business [or organization] is to create as much value as possible for stakeholders”. Stakeholders are people with an interest or concern in something. In business, this could mean keeping the interests of “customers, suppliers, employees, communities, and shareholders aligned and going in the same direction”.

Apply: Stakeholder theory focuses on creating a cooperative environment where the interests of everyone involved are valued without a level of hierarchy. This is important to community development because when you are working within a group, all perspectives and interests need to be valued and taken into account. In order for the development to be effective, there needs to be a shared interest and outcome to ensure that no one is being harmed or left out. It also shows that you value group member’s opinions and that they hold expertise within the development process.

Adapt: When working within a school, if a student is struggling academically or behaviorally, intervention decisions made for this student are made with multiple stakeholders. These stakeholders include the student, the school social worker, the student’s teacher(s), and the student’s parents. This ensures that everyone is on board and is able to implement the intervention strategies when they are working with the student.

Source: Stakeholder Theory. (2015). Retrieved October 26, 2015, from http://www.stakeholdermap.com/stakeholder-theory.html

Selective Perception Theory

Definition: Selective perception theory refers to how a person interprets information and perceives things in way that favors something over another based on your own personal desires, values, and beliefs. Therefore, a person ignores the perspectives of others and acts bias.

Apply: Selective perception theory is important to community development because it’s important to be unbiased while working within a community. Within a community there is often a diverse group of people in regard to race, religious affiliation, culture, sexual orientation, etc. Even if the community members themselves share similar backgrounds and beliefs, they may differ from your own personal backgrounds and beliefs. Therefore, it’s important to understand your own personal biases so you can be open to different perspectives. When you interact with community members with selective perception, you often will have a hard time building personal relationships with people because you hold certain labels or stereotypes that will limit your ability to connect and trust one another.

Adapt: Selective Perception is important to understand when it comes to interpersonal practice where you are working with clients who have been incarcerated. If a social worker had selective perception, they may view the client as less deserving of resources or services based on the crime they committed. However, if the social worker did not have selective perception, they could recognize and understand the ways in which societal forces impacted the client’s life and lead him or her to a life of crime.

Source: Sarah Mae Sincero (Aug 1, 2013). Selective Perception. Retrieved Oct 25, 2015 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/selective-perception

False consciousness

Definition: According to Ledwith (p.xiii), “false consciousness refers to the unquestioning view of the world in which subordinate groups accept their reality in passive and fatalistic ways, leaving the power and privilege of dominant groups unchallenged”.

Apply: I do not believe development work can really even take place if community members are experiencing false consciousness because they are accepting their realities and would have no desire to challenge the system or privileges people have. In order to do effective community development, you need the movement of the community and a collective desire to make a difference and a change. If community members are passive, they would not view anything as a problem or at least a problem that could be solved. If this does occur with certain individuals within a community, you could hold discussions that aim to raise consciousness and understanding of the inequalities that they are experiencing, specifically led by other community members.

Adapt: False consciousness could be experienced by the ways in which people vote in our society. For example, a person could vote in a way that actually benefits those who are privilege rather than themselves or they could not vote at all. There are many people in society who refuse to vote because they believe things will never change. Not voting at all actually ensures that those in power and who have privilege will continue to maintain it.

Source: Ledwith, M., & Campling, J. (2005). Community development: A critical approach. Bristol, UK: Policy Press.

Control Theory

Definition: Control Theory explains that when societal institutions do not have a strong control of society than deviant behavior can be a result.

Apply: This can be applied to the way in which a community functions, specifically within the community development process, when members do not have close relationships to those they are working with. Control is often associated with negative consequences but it could also be viewed as building strong social bonds with one another. For example, a community development project could be focusing on creating more safe places within the community for people to gather socially with the hopes that crime will be reduced. If the community does not have personal connections and a sense of respect from one another, crime will most likely be higher. Even if safe spaces were built, they would only be considered safe if there was a strong control, in this case, strong social bonds within the community.

Adapt: Control theory exists within our judicial system where there are set policies and laws in place in an attempt to divert people from becoming deviant. Those who are deviant are met with negative consequences such as fines or prison time.

Source: Boundless. “Control Theory.” Boundless Sociology. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 26 Oct. 2015 from https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/the-symbolic-interactionalist-perspective-on-deviance-64/control-theory-382-8938/

Naive Consciousness

Definition: According to Ledwith (p.xiii), Naive Consciousness is, “Freire's concept for partial empowerment which relates to the symptoms of oppression, engaging with single issues rather than the underlying roots of injustice".

Apply: Naive consciousness can be seen when you are working within a community and you are addressing surface level issues and not acknowledging and working through some of the more systemic issues causing the community problems. For example, community developers could enter into a community and assist with getting rid of an abandoned home to get rid of blight in the community. However, getting rid of an abandoned home does not address the issue as to why the house was abandoned in the first place. Perhaps the owners could no longer afford the rent due to gentrification in their community. Therefore, if gentrification is an issue, getting rid of one abandoned house is not going to help with the problem of increasing rent that is causing houses to become abandoned.

Adapt: Naive consciousness could be applied to interpersonal practice where a social worker could assist a male client with a surface level issue of having a fear of talking to women by role-playing situations to try and practice ways in which the client could converse with women. However, if the social worker never talks with the client about why he has a fear of talking with women, such as feeling self-conscious about his physical appearance or a negative experience with a woman that happened in the past, the role-playing will never get to the client’s root cause of the fear. He may feel more prepared on what to say to women he encounters but he will still never approach them due to his self consciousness of his appearance.

Source: Ledwith, M., & Campling, J. (2005). Community development: A critical approach. Bristol, UK: Policy Press.

Implicit Bias Theory

Implicit Bias Theory states that there is "bias in judgment and/or behavior that results from subtle cognitive processes (e.g., implicit attitudes and implicit stereotypes) that often operate at a level below conscious awareness and without intentional control" ("Helping Courts Address Implicit Bias", 2012.) 

Apply: Implicit Bias Theory can be applied in a variety of situations. In community development work, it can be utilized when trying to better understand that in a collaborative group setting with folks from different backgrounds, despite education and awareness raising, people still hold implicit biases that often affect their decision-making processes.  It is important for the CD to understand that implicit biases exist and that they can show, even when unintended. It is a good theory to discuss at a group meeting so that everyone has an understanding of what it is and how it can show and that it affects folks with good intentions, as well.

Adapt: The theory of implicit bias can also be seen very seriously with law enforcement.  In online tests and experiments, cops who may not be intentionally racist are more likely to shoot a black character with no gun than a white character with a gun, due to implicit biases and implicit stereotypes regarding the black males portrayed in the examples. To be clear, this is found with all people, not only police officers. Still, it is very important to be aware that these implicit biases exist.

Source: Helping Courts Address Implicit Bias. (2012). The National Center for State Courts. http://www.ncsc.org/~/media/Files/PDF/Topics/Gender%20and%20Racial%20Fairness/Implicit%20Bias%20FAQs%20rev.ashx. 

Positivism Theory

Definition: According to Ledwith (p.34), positivism is often used as an approach to research that “result[s] in rational, scientific methods of researching human behavior that treat[s] people like objects and den[ies] the less tangible feelings aspect of being human”

Apply: If you used a positivist approach while conducting research within a community, you would being doing research on the people rather than with the people. This approach makes it easy to overlook important aspects of community life because it disregards the ways in which community members are feeling about a particular situation and is instead more interested in how the situation should be dealt with. Without understanding how community members feel, the changes that take place as a result of the research of development plans, will most likely cause more harm than good.

Adapt: I think positivism theory could be adapted to the way in which our society views women in general. Since positivism disregards the relevance of feelings, women in society are often cast aside and seen as unreliable. This is due to the fact that women are associated with having a lot of “feelings” which in a positivist view makes them react irrationally.

Source: Ledwith, M., & Campling, J. (2005). Community development: A critical approach. Bristol, UK: Policy Press.

System Justification Theory

System Justification Theory argues that (a) there is a general ideological motive to justify the
existing social order, (b) this motive is at least partially responsible for the internalization
of inferiority among members of disadvantaged groups, (c) it is observed most readily at
an implicit, nonconscious level of awareness and (d) paradoxically, it is sometimes
strongest among those who are most harmed by the status quo (Jost, Banaji, & Nosek, 2004).

Apply: Social Justification Theory can be applied to community development work when we think about certain CD projects and how some people are indifferent (or appear to be indifferent) or even resistant to change.  While there are, of course, other explanations for indifference and resistance, this theory is useful in thinking about how people who are negatively effected by the status quo might still resist change.  I could see this becoming especially apparent when raising critical consciousness.

Adapt: I see this all of the time with some of my family members who are low-income, previously middle-class, and white.  Despite being negatively effected by the status quo (i.e. low minimum wages, city/county policy changes affecting employment, state refusal to adopt ACA programming, etc.), they still argue that any progressive change is bad....because "it's just wrong."


Source: Jost, J, Banaji, M., and Nosek, B. (2004). A Decade of System Justification Theory: Accumulated Evidence of Conscious and Unconscious Bolstering of the Status Quo. Political Psychology, Vol. 25, No. 6,

Attribution Theory

Attribution Theory is a Social Psychology theory that "deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events.  It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal judgment” (Fiske, & Taylor, 1991). Heider (1958) described two types of attribution: 1) internal attributions, such as personality traits and 2) external attributions, such as situational or environmental causes
Apply: One key way I see this theory applied to community development is when a community developer looks at a neighborhood and attempts to determine why things as they are. For example, when looking at at a community concern of prostitution, one could internally attribute it and claim that the prostitute is a bad person and did it to herself.  If attributing externally, one might claim that there is prostitution in the neighborhood because there are high rates of poverty and unemployment.  How someone attributes community concerns can drastically change what is looked to for practices and programming within a community development initiative. 
Adapt: This can be seen all of the time when there are discussions and debates about our safety nets.  For example, arguments regarding SNAP always end up revolving around whether or not a person is individually doing enough to get themselves out of poverty--are they working? are they doing drugs? do they have any money in savings? Rather than internally attributing it, it could be attributed externally to be viewed as a systemic, environmental problem that has little to do with individual characteristics or effort. 

Source: Attribution Theory. SimplyPsychology. 2010. http://www.simplypsychology.org/attribution-theory.html. 

Community Based Participatory Research (CBPR)

Community Based Participatory Research (CBPR) is  a theory of and "collaborative approach to research that equitably involves all partners in the research process and recognizes the unique strengths that each brings. CBPR begins with a research topic of importance to the community, has the aim of combining knowledge with action and achieving social change to improve health outcomes and eliminate health disparities." (WK Kellogg Foundation Community Health Scholars Program).


Apply: CBPR can and should be used in community development projects. Before embarking on a community development initiative, CD staff should start by collaborating with community members to research something identified by the community.  From there, staff can ensure that the research can combine with action, in whatever form that may take.  

Adapt: CBPR can also be utilized in other settings, such as a new business opening up. For example, if a grocery store was looking to open in a neighborhood, it would be of benefit to both the community and the store owner to collaboratively research with neighborhood residents.  They may discover a way to open a store that would best meet the wants and needs of the neighborhood, perhaps even incorporating socially just practices (i.e. hiring folks from the neighborhood vs. from outside, providing higher-quality foods, etc.)

Critical Praxis Model

Definition: "The model aims to locate power and domination within a social and political framework and gives an idea of the ways in which subordination is reinforced. In juxtaposition to this is critical consciousness."

Source: Ledwith, M. (2011). Community development: A critical approach. Policy Press.

Application: This model can be used to help a community organizer to better understand the internal and external forces that are preventing change or awareness from occurring. It creates space for a critical approach to a community by taking into consideration influences at all levels- individual, local, group, community, national, etc. that might effect what is happening within the context of a community. 

Adaption: This model can be used at a business. If a business is trying to understand why a a certain product is no longer making profits it would be important to not just assume why this is happening. The company could use this model to understand what issues are occurring internally and externally to better understand how to modify or create a new product for consumers. 

Schuler's Core Values Model

Definition: "The projects in the process of change should not be fragmented from an organic whole. Schuler sees a community as a system that likens to a human body, each part dependent on the rest for a healthy, full functioning whole."

Source: Ledwith, M. (2011). Community development: A critical approach. Policy Press.


Application: As a community organizer, it is important to understand all functions of community while your developing it. No part can truly be more important than the other because that are all interrelated. Only through constant evaluation and critiquing of all areas can a community become a functioning whole. 

Adaptation: This model could be easily adapted to a family. Regardless of roles (parent, sibling, extended family etc.) each person can see how valuable they are. Each individual will be able to see what they can contribute for the good of the family unit. 

Intersectionality

Definition: "Intersectionality is a framework that must be applied to all social justice work, a frame that recognizes the multiple aspects of identity that enrich our lives and experiences and that compound and complicate oppressions and marginalizations." Source: Uwujaren, J., & Utt, J. (2015). "Why Our Feminism Must Be Intersectional (And Three Ways to Practice It." Everyday Feminism. Retrieved from http://everydayfeminism.com/2015/01/why-our-feminism-must-be-intersectional/. 

Application: Intersectional theory is critical to community development work - as community developers, we have to work to understand experiences and identities that are often not our own. Without understanding our own identities and the identities of the communities we work with, we run the risk of replicating structural oppressions within our social justice communities. Beyond seeking to understand different experiences, community developers need to be aware of how multiple identities intersect to create different experiences - racism and sexism manifest in completely different ways for black women than for black men or white women.

Adaptation: Intersectional theory is equally important in the context of public policy. To use the example of black women, public policies that attempt to address racism or sexism often do not account for the experiences of black women who do not experience these oppressions separately, compared to black men (who have male privilege) and white women (who have white privilege) - black women are oppressed on both fronts. Without taking intersectionality into account, black women are often further marginalized and silenced by these policies.

Critical Pedagogy

Definition - "Critical pedagogy considers how education can provide individuals with the tools to better themselves and strengthen democracy, to create a more egalitarian and just society, and thus to deploy education in a process of progressive social change." 

21st Century Schools (n.d.). Criticial Pedagogy Retrieved from http://www.21stcenturyschools.com/critical_pedagogy.htm

 Application - Critical pedagogy is applicable to community development because community development focuses on helping whole communities create changes for themselves. Critical pedagogy does just that by giving communities the tools to help themselves rather than us as social workers creating "solutions" for them without understanding the community

Alternate Application - This theory could also be applicable to parents. Rather than constantly "solving problems" for their kids, parents can teach kids how to solve their own problems and encourage them to work through obstacles on their own after giving them the tools to do so. 

Marginality and Mattering (Schlossberg, 1989)

Theory - Marginality and Mattering (Schlossberg, 1989)

Definition - this theory was developed to explain what makes students more likely to transition to college. Schlossberg  theorized that the success or failure of a student's transition (e.g. from their hometown to University) is directly related to the level to which they feel they matter in their new environment.

Evergreen State College. (n.d.) Community Development Theories. Retrieved from http://www.evergreen.edu/housing/RAManual/section2.2combuild.htm

Application - Marginality and Mattering is critical to community development. Ensuring that all community members who want to be part of the community's development have an opportunity to do so and to feel that they matter. This is what will make them feel included in the group and make them want to stay.

Alternative Application - This theory could be applied to the school of social work and SEED week. SEED week was designed to build group cohesion, which will keep people in the school of social work from being marginalized and help them feel they matter within the school. This will help make sure the school of social work has high graduation rates.

Group Behavior (Lewin, 1952)

Theory - Group Behavior

Definition - Born out of Lewin's research in the 1950s, Group Behavior theory essentially states that people will support things they helped create.

Evergreen State College. (n.d.) Community Development Theories. Retrieved from http://www.evergreen.edu/housing/RAManual/section2.2combuild.htm


Application - This theory is particularly apt to community development because it speaks to the importance of community ownership of development projects. Community members need to be involved from the very beginning of development projects, including coming up with the community issues that need solutions. This involvement will help ensure the project's success because the community will work hard to ensure it succeeds.

Alternate Application - Parents could use Group Behavior Theory to plan activities with their kids. Giving their kids choices and let them make their own decisions will give their kids agency and ensure buy-in to the activities.

Team Development Theory

Definition: Tuckman's model of small group development consists of 5 stages: forming, norming, storming, performing, and adjourning. He "theorizes that these phases are all necessary and inevitable in order for the team to grow, to face up to challenges, to tackle problems, to find solutions, to plan work, and to deliver results." Source: Four (Five) Stages of Team Development - Bruce Tuckman. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.washington.edu/research/rapid/resources/changeModels/mc_team_development.pdf

Application: As a community developer, knowing Tuckman's model of small group development would be helpful when organizing community members. Knowing what is likely to happen in each stage as the group forms, a community developer can be better prepared to deal with group conflict and other issues that may arise while working with small groups. 

Adaptation: Tuckman's model of small group development is very applicable to, and is often consulted, in the business world. When thinking about small group work in the context of a group of employees working together to deliver a final product at a certain deadline, the project manager can be better prepared to facilitate the group with an understanding of the general trajectory that small groups follow.  

Social Penetration Theory

Definition: Social penetration theory contends that "as relationships develop, communication moves from relatively shallow, non-intimate levels to deeper, more personal ones." Source: Altman, I., & Taylor, D.A. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relatioships. New York: Holt, Rinehard, and Winston.

Application: Social penetration theory is important for community developers in terms of forming relationships and building trust with community members. For example, rather than entering a community and immediately sharing intimate, personal details about yourself might be uncomfortable for community members who are meeting you for the first time. Instead, a community developer should begin to communicate and build relationships around less personal topics and gradually build up to both sharing and seeking more personal information after trust has been built.  

Adaptation: Social penetration theory could also be applied to the education field in terms of student-teacher relationships. For example, students may not feel comfortable sharing intimate details about their lives with a teacher they have just met (i.e. if they are having problems at home and that is why they are never on time to class). After having built some level of trust with the teacher, however, a student might feel that they can go to their teacher, share what is going on with them, and maybe ask them for help. 

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Definition: Cognitive dissonance theory "refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance." Source: McLeod, S. (2008). Cognitive Dissonance. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html

Application: Cognitive dissonance theory is important in the context of community development, both for the community developer and for the community they are working with so that they can recognize when they themselves or community members are struggling with conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors and can address them accordingly. For example, a community member might refer to themselves as a social justice advocate but later make a racist remark to another community member, an issue that the community developer would want to address before moving forward. 

Adaptation: Cognitive dissonance theory could also be applied to political science. For example, a politician might have some political issues that are very important to them as they enter office but may be forced to act differently based on the political climate of the legislature, forcing them to find a way to reduce the discomfort of taking actions that are not truly in line with their beliefs.