Psychodynamic Theory

Definition: Psychodynamic theory supports the idea that individual processes occurring internally (e.g., feelings/emotions, thoughts, needs, etc) influence and motivate human behavior. Experiences in childhood are defining moments that ultimately affect how a person's internal processes are constructed and how they operate on a regular basis--some of these activities may occur unconsciously. The theory also states that individuals will likely become overwhelmed by demands that are made from them and create defense mechanisms to avoid becoming bogged down by the demands. 

Application: This theory can be applied to community development work because community developers should work to understand the types of environments in which folks are growing up to better understand their behavior. Understanding the stressors that were present in the community and how that could/did affect their development. It is also a theory that can be applied to understand folks involvement or lack thereof within a program in regards to the level of demands it makes on a person's life. 

Adaptation: This theory can be adapted to other disciplines that are seeking to understand what motivates human behavior. Professionals working in program development would want to consider the issue of creating too many demands for participants. It is also a theory that would probably work best in a therapy setting.

Source:

http://web.augsburg.edu/socialwork/msw/pdfs/cheatsheet.pdf

Knowledge Gap

Definition: The knowledge gap theory discusses the discrepancy between highly and poorly educated individuals. It acknowledges that although information and education is thought to be accessible for all members of society, it is much easier for folks from higher SES backgrounds tend to access different types of knowledge and information than folks from lower SES backgrounds. Also, as a result, people from lower SES backgrounds tend to be less aware of current events, laws/policies, and other valuable types of information. These differences result in folks from higher SES backgrounds having more polished communication and literacy skills while folks form lower SES backgrounds are going to struggle with retaining information.

Application: This theory can be applied to community development work because stakeholders should be aware of education attainment rates in the community they are working with to make sure that the language/vocabulary they are using is accessible when doing outreach and work with community members. I think it would also be important to acknowledge the discrepancy between folks from high and low SES backgrounds and create programs as well as opportunities for children to access higher education. Community developers would also be able to work with adults to improve their communication and literacy skills.

Adaptation: This theory can adapted to other disciplines outside of social work or community development because the knowledge gap should be something that concerns any professional that works within the field of social welfare/public interest. It should be a theory that should be seriously considered in the public administration field because it is a systemic and institutional issue that federal and state policies should be addressing. It goes without saying that professionals in the education field (especially teachers) should not be taking this issue lately, which includes working on eliminating the school to prison pipeline.

Source:
https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Mass%20Media/knowledge_gap/

Theory of Planned Behavior/ Reasoned Action

Definition: The theory of planned behavior/ reasoned action is the idea that a person's behavior is heavily influenced and determined by their attitude towards the behavior/activity. Furthermore, the theory believes that behavior can be predicted by a person's intention as intention is a cognitive manifestation of how prepared someone is to complete a behavior. In addition, the manner in which a person perceives that people they care about are going to react to their behavior has a big influence on whether the behavior/action is carried out or not as well.

Application: This theory can be applied to community development work because social workers/social change agents should be aware of how folks may or may not feel about being involved in the project/organization that is being initiated. How a community will receive the community developer's PODS location is an important consideration, as well as considering what the community's relationship is like with other agencies. As a community developer, you will not only want the community to trust your initiative enough to use its service, but also trust it enough to get involved and have a stake in.

Adaptation: This theory can be adapted to all other disciplines besides social work or community development because assessing what motivates people to complete a behavior/action will increase the success of any initiative being taken. It would be helpful for people who are trying to increase awareness or participation in a cause.

Source: https://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Health%20Communication/theory_planned_behavior/

Cognitive Resource Theory

Definition: Intelligence and experience and other cognitive resources are factors in leadership success Application: For example, When leaders are better at planning and decision-making, in order for their plans and decisions to be implemented, they need to tell people what to do, rather than hope they agree with them. This happens in the community when you have dominate personalities in the community that are leaders, and the stakeholders agree many times out of fear. Adaptation: This can happen in all walks of life, especially when you have leaders in a dictator type of system. Having proper leadership styles and a voice in the decision making process should be a part of all groups.  Source: Fiedler, F.E. (1986). The contribution of cognitive resources ot leadership performance. In L. Berkowitz (ed), Advances in experimental social psychology. NY: Academic Press

Great man theory

Definition: Leaders are born, not made and great leaders will arise when there is a great need. Application: There is not a manual on what it takes to be a good leader, good leaders have taught us over time what it looks like, but many can't explain how to get there. Finding leaders in the community usually isn't very difficult if there are community leaders. The leaders are known and easily accessible. Great leaders are engaged an invested in their teams, orgs and communities. Adaptation: Grooming great men takes time, and the experiences growing up help build great men. Examples of great men to me would be Barack Obama, Bo Schembechler and Martin Luther King Jr. Source: James, W. 2005 [1880]. Great Men and Their Environment. Kila, MT: Kessinger Publishing

Realistic Conflict Theory

Definition: When there is limited resources, then this leads to conflict, prejudice and discrimination between groups who seek that common resource. Once hostility has been aroused, it is very difficult to return to normal relations and an ongoing feud can arise. Application: Limited resources to African Americans and people of color has always been an issue and concern for those communities. Hostility with police and people of power has also been an issue and has began to resurface in our communities today. Educating those in power on this theory could lead to a better understanding on the attitudes of those underprivileged people. Adaptation: Realistic conflict theory is really interesting because you first have to teach those why there are limited resources to certain groups, then they will understand why there is anger and hostility going on. Source: Jackson, J. W. (1993), Realistic group conflict theory: A review and evaluation of the theoretical and empirical literature, Psychological Record, 43-395-413

Non-Verbal Behavior theory

Definition: The communication without words. The face is used a great deal. Hand signals, shrugs, head movements, etc. also are used.  Application: Non verbal behavior is very important in the social work profession, specifically with interpersonal practice. In the community, it is important to be able to read non verbal clues because you may be working with people with different cultures and languages.  Adaptation: Non verbal behavior is used in all walks of life from infants to the elderly. Being able to understand them is more vital than learning to do so because many times when we do non verbal clues it is done subconsciously. Source: Burgoon, J.K. Buller, D.B. and Woodall, W.G. (1996) Nonverbal Communication, New York: McGraw-Hill

Frustration-Aggression Theory

Definition: When people perceive that they are being prevented from achieving a goal, their frustration is likely to turn to aggression. Application: Specifically in the African American communities, this theory is experienced on a large scale and affects many people. Many AA feel as if the gov't and other powers at be have held them back from obtaining the financial freedom to be as successful as others. This leads to crime, violence and eventually some form of incarceration. Adaptation:This can be used in any aspect of life. It happens in the workplace in terms of advancement in the job and how that leads some to have violent blowups in the office or arguments with  coworkers or supervisors.  Source: Barker, R., Dembo, T. and Lewin, K. (1941) Frustration and aggression: An experiment with young children, University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare,18, 1-314

Classical Conditioning

Definition: If a stimulus that results in an emotional response is repeated alongside another stimulus which does not cause an emotional response, eventually the second stimulus will result in the same emotional response. Classical Conditioning is thus ‘learning by association’. Application: Classical conditioning is best used on young people, or those whose minds are in a state of evolution. Many people in the community are already conditioned to a certain way of thinking in terms of oppression and other issues, but the youth in the community can have different experiences by teaching them a better lifestyle Adaptation: Going in the community being able to show them a different lifestyle and ways of thinking can go a long way in changing the mindsets and morale in the community.  Source: Garcia, J. and Koelling, R.A. (1966) Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4, 123

Least Interest Principle theory

Definition: In any relationship, the person who has the least interest in continuing the relationship has the greatest power. Application: This theory is used against the community in most cases. Financial powers and investors can selectively come and go in terms of support and resources for the community. Since they do not live in or are directly affected by the community, they can essentially end the relationship at the end of an agreement. Adaptation: Communities can use this to their advantage when dealing with those investors by continually looking for new opportunities to help better the community members. Not being pigeonholed by investors. Source: Waller, W. W. and Hill, R. (1951) The Family, A Dynamic Interpretation, New York: Warner Books

Minimalist theory

The Minimalist theory of J.M. Carroll is a framework for the design of instruction, especially training materials for computer users. The theory suggests that (1) all learning tasks should be meaningful and self-contained activities, (2) learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible, (3) instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising by increasing the number of active learning activities, (4) training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and recovery and, (5) there should be a close linkage between the training and actual system.

This can applied to social work when doing project planning with community members. Are you valuing their time by giving them clear direction? Are they able to be self-determinant in their learning? These are important factors to consider.

This is related to higher education when thinking about how students are developing. Is what they are given in classrooms meaningful? College students often dread classes because they do not see the application. Educators must work to help students make those connections.

Carroll, J.M. (1998). Minimalism beyond the Nurnberg Funnel. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Social Support

Social Support is associated with how networking helps people cope with stressful events. Besides it can enhance psychological well-being. Social support distinguishes between four types of support (House, 1981). Emotional support is associated with sharing life experiences. It involves the provision of empathy, love, trust and caring. Instrumental support involves the provision of tangible aid and services that directly assist a person in need. It is provided by close friends, colleagues and neighbours. Informational support involves the provision of advice, suggestions, and information that a person can use to address problems. Appraisal support involves the provision of information that is useful for self-evaluation purposes: constructive feedback, affirmation and social comparison.

Social workers should eat, live and breathe this. All of these types of support are critical in providing comprehensive support to communities. Life experiences should lead to services that help support overcoming struggles shared. With whatever programming is done, it should always be evaluated.

I see this in higher education on this campus with the diversity initiatives President Schlissel is implementing. I am hopeful that social support theory is being used in the implementation process. It seems like they are trying to provide a lot of entries for engagement. Will we see if they follow through with it.

Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K. & Lewis, F.M. (2002). Health Behavior and Health Education. Theory, Research and Practice.San Fransisco: Wiley & Sons.

Strategic Contingencies Theory

Definition: Strategic contingencies theory says that Intraorganizational power depends on three factors: problem skills, actor centrality and uniqueness of skill. Application: This theory means if you have the skills and expertise to resolve important problems, then you are going to be in demand. So when working with community members it is important to place members in positions where they can succeed or fit best for the group. Adaptation: As a CO, it is also important to first know the strengths of the people you are working with. Although this could be difficult with a community of like strengths, a good CO will find creative ways to engage all participants and stakeholders involved. Source:  Hickson, D.J., Hinigs, C.R., Lee, C.A., Schneck, R.S., and Pennings, J.M. (1971). A strategic contingencies theory of intra-organizational power. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 216-229

Power Theory

Definition:

The ability to get others to change their behavior even if they do not wish to do so. Power comes from rank, knowledge, resources or even fear. Application:When working with people in the community, it may be difficult to get everyone on the same page and working towards a common goal. Strong leaders have the ability to talk to people and get them to see things differently for the good of all people. Adaptation:This is a gift that not everyone has, and its easier to get through to some people, rather than others. Having power because of rank or status can have a different impact than that based on invoking fear unto someone. Find the one that works best for the people you are working with and use it for a good point. Source: Pfeffer, J. (1992). Managing with power: Politics and influence in organizations. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press

Mood-Congruent Judgment

Definition:

Our judgments are not cold and logical: they are biased by our moods.  Application: A community developer wants to help build community morale by having a festival or event to bring the community together. On the day of the event, the weather was bad and the festival was ruined. The excitement for the event quickly turned into anger and led to a fight between members of the community. The rain changed the mood of the participants and led to anger and fights. Adaptation: This theory could be adapted into the community and other groups by being aware of how simple things like weather, hunger, fatigue can alter your judgement at any given time. Most people tend to feel down or uptight when we are tired, but having the knowledge of how subconsciencously our moods can be changed due to every day common changes. Source:  Isen, A. M., Shalker, T. E., Clark, M., and Karp, L. (1978), Resources required in the construction and reconstruction of conversation, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1-12

Spiral of Silence

The phrase "spiral of silence" actually refers to how people tend to remain silent when they feel that their views are in the minority. The model is based on three premises: 1) people have a "quasi-statistical organ," a sixth-sense if you will, which allows them to know the prevailing public opinion, even without access to polls, 2) people have a fear of isolation and know what behaviors will increase their likelihood of being socially isolated, and 3) people are reticent to express their minority views, primarily out of fear of being isolated.

This is something that a community you enter has been dealing with for years. They may feel silenced by their local government, the police or even the businesses they frequent. As a community developer, it is important that you give them a megaphone of sorts (community participation) and make sure their voice is amplified.

In higher education, students of color often feel this. They do not speak up because they do not want to be the “angry black person” stereotype, so they stay silent. As I hope to enter higher education, I hope to amplify their voices like my mentors have mine.

Glynn, J.C., Hayes, F.A. & Shanahan, J. (1997). “Perceived support for ones opinions sand willingness to speak out: A meta-analysis of survey studies on the ‘spiral of silence’” Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (3):452-463.

Gatekeeping

Gatekeeping - The gatekeeper decides which information will go forward, and which will not. In other words a gatekeeper in a social system decides which of a certain commodity – materials, goods, and information – may enter the system. Important to realize is that gatekeepers are able to control the public’s knowledge of the actual events by letting some stories pass through the system but keeping others out.

As social workers, we are inherently gatekeepers. We decide what information we share and don’t share community members. With that, it is important to keep in my mind if the information you are withholding is harming the community in the long run.

In higher education, student life employees are gatekeepers of a wealth of information. It is up to them to synthesize what their students need the most so that they feel as supported as possible.

White, David Manning. (1964). "The 'Gatekeeper': A Case Study In the Selection of News, In: Lewis A. Dexter / David M. White (Hrsg.): People, Society and Mass Communications. London S. 160 - 172. "

Diffusion of Innovations Theory

Diffusion of Innovations Theory research centers on the conditions which increase or decrease the likelihood that a new idea, product, or practice will be adopted by members of a given culture. Diffusion of innovation theory predicts that media as well as interpersonal contacts provide information and influence opinion and judgment.

This is related to social work in that we must be realize we do not live in a vacuum. There are societal factors that affect how invested people may be in creating change in their community. Do you have a key constituent on your side? That can affect how people perceive you in their community.

This plays out often in policy work. If a certain lawmaker supports a bill, it now has a certain prestige. Without that support, policies go nowhere.

Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th edition). The Free Press. New York.

Coordinated Management of Meaning

The theory of Coordinated Management of Meaning says basically that persons-in-conversation construct their own social realities. Pearce and Cronen (1980) believe that CMM is useful in our everyday lives. People within a social situation first want to understand what is going on and apply rules to figure things out. They act on the basis of their understanding, employing rules to decide what kind of action is appropriate.

This can be associated with community participation. We must allow community member to construct their own meanings and realities. The best way to do this will always be in person, or at least person to person.

This can be applied to intergroup dialogue work. In intergroup dialogues, you allow people to use their experiences to understand how social identities interact in the world. Everyone's an expert at their own experience, so that is used as the basis of “figuring things out.”

Pearce, W. B., & Cronen, V. (1980). Communication, action, and meaning: The creation of social realities. New York: Praeger.

Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is a communication theory adopted from social psychology. The title gives the concept: cognitive is thinking or the mind; and dissonance is inconsistency or conflict. Cognitive dissonance is the psychological conflict from holding two or more incompatible beliefs simultaneously.

This can be applied to community development when working with a community whose traditional structures may hinder the goal you are trying to accomplish in some way. While you value what they believe, you may see how it is holding back what are you trying to do. When that happens, it is important to put your ego to the side and meet the community where they are at.

This happens often as college students develop. They have heard one thing their entire lives, then get to college and learn that what their homogeneous city told them about the world is pretty far off. Educators must realize and help students work through these potentially difficult realizations.

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press

Attraction-Selection-Attrition framework

The Attraction-Selection-Attrition framework states ‘attributes of people, not the nature of external environment, or organizational technology, or organizational structure, are the fundamental determinants of organizational behavior’ (Schneider, 1987). The people are functions of an Attraction-Selection-Attrition cycle.

This can be adapted to social work when thinking about the communities we interact that look different from ours. One place I think of is Brightmoor, a neighborhood I have lived near and have volunteered numerous times in. One can see the burnt out houses and assume the worst. However, once you meet the neighbors of Neighbors Building Brightmoor, you can see they are implementing a culture of safety and beautification where they can.

This can be applied to the world of higher education when thinking about campus climate issues around race. When first years come in, what type of skills are they gaining to help talk through cross-cultural differences? Looking at the attributes students have does a lot in creating an inclusive student body.

Schneider, B., Goldstein, H.W. & Smith, D.B. (1995). The ASA Framework: An Update. Personnel Psychology, 48, 747-779.

Agenda-setting

Agenda-setting is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues by the news media. Two basic assumptions underlie most research on agenda-setting: (1) the press and the media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it; (2) media concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to perceive those issues as more important than other issues.

This can applied to social work and community development when thinking about how we engage community member in change. Are we sending them a press release with updates or are engaging them to come up with their own plan? I see in Detroit a lot of good intent that is based on what people see in the media, but they do not connect with Detroiters who have lived there for years.

This can be applied to the whole world right now with what is going on with Paris, Beirut and Baghdad. The characterization of Islam being a violent religion and not just ISIS itself as an organization is creating Islamaphobia across the globe at the moment. The media plays a huge part in this.

Kleinnijenhuis, J. & Rietberg, E.M. (1995). Parties, media, the public and the economy: Patterns of societal agenda-setting. European journal of political research: official journal of the European Consortium for Political Research, 28(1),95-118

Adaptive Structuration Theory

Adaptive Structuration Theory is based on Anthony Giddens' structuration theory. AST criticizes the technocentric view of technology use and emphasizes the social aspects. Groups and organizations using information technology for their work dynamically create perceptions about the role and utility of the technology, and how it can be applied to their activities.

This can be applied to community development when thinking about how social workers engage people through technology. Some may not have the technology you assume they have so you should do your best to be inclusive. People should be accommodated if technology is a potential hindrance.

This can be adapted to other disciplines like higher education and working with students. Many students today are connected at the hip to their phones, so it is important to learn how we can use this technology socially to connect people on college campuses to what they need and as well as to try to bridge communities.

Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, 121-147

Structural Change Theory

Structural Change Theory

Definition:"Structural change is a complex, intertwined phenomenon, not only because economic growth brings about complementary changes in various aspects of the economy, such as the sector compositions of output and employment, organization of industry, etc., but also these changes in turn affect the growth process." (Matsuyama)

Application: Undertstanding structural changes within a community and the impact this structure can have on the community such a job loss, access to resources and migration. So being aware of these strutters within a community and  changes within them.

Adaptation:This theory is widely used in economics to understand the impact structural changes have on the economy.

Basic crisis theory

Basic crisis theory

Definition:  "theory and intervention directed toward sufferers of loss/grief. Normal grief behaviors include:  (1) preoccupation with the lost one, (2) identification with the lost one, (3) expressions of guilt and hostility, (4) some disorganization in daily routine, and (5) some evidence of somatic complaints. These responses are not abnormal nor pathological." (Lindemann, 1944)

Application: Within the social work profession there will be an unmeasurable amount of time where you will have to deal with an individual/community in crisis. It is important that you can recognize the crisis and use best practices to intervene if needed. 

Adaptation: This theory can be used in any discipline that works with individuals because there will always be some form of crisis that will occur and others should be well equipped to deal with them. 

Constructivist Theory

Constructivist Theory

Definition: "learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge." (Jerome Bruner)

Application: Understanding how individuals may come up with ideas or people within a community. As allies it will be important to understand how people within a community come up with the ideas especially if tit has a strong ties to the communities current or past concerns. 

Adaptation:This theory can be used across many disciplines to understand past present and even future aspects of how something was constructed.

Reception Theory

Reception Theory

Definition: "Jauss argued that literary works are received against an existing horizon of expectations consisting of readers' This new paradigm of literary criticism pays attention to the function of the reader in a process of literary experience." (Jauss, 1984)

Application: This theory is useful to understand how media can be perceived cross culturally throughout time. Also help when framing ideas to various communities each community is different so how you frame something will receive different receptions based on the community or group. 

Adaptation: The theory is commonly used in media and communications to understand how various constructs determine how individuals read media. 

Endogenous Growth Theory

1    Endogenous Growth Theory

http://wp.aae.wisc.edu/ced/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2013/07/economic-growth-on-line-for-CNRED.pdf

Define: long-term economic growth which has been fostered internally, particularly to grow technological growth and knowledge.

Apply: this can be applied at the community level, particularly when a community is looking to grow its human capital. Knowledge and education can be fostered within a community to grow capabilities, draw companies providing those jobs, and then other service providers to support this workforce into the community.

Adapt: This can also be adapted within a company, in which decision-makers decide to invest in the education of their employees. As their employees learn more, the company expands and improves.

Dynamic Systems Theory

Define: Often known as systems theory, dynamic systems theory addresses system transformation, and includes related theories such as cybernetics, catastrophe theory, and chaos theory.

Source: Robbins, S., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. (2012). Contemporary human behavior theory: A critical perspective for social work (3rd ed., p. 35). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Apply: Dynamic systems theory within a community shows how individuals, groups, organizations, and other formal services interact at all levels to create a multi-faceted and multi-layered group dynamic.

Adapt: A single family can be seen as a system. Every member is an individual, yet each member is mutually influencing other members, outside individuals which interact with family members, and outside services (such as faith organizations, social services, etc.).

Community Development Theory

Define: Community Development Theory focuses on a "community" of persons which can be defined in a variety of ways: geographical, cultural, socioeconomic status, language, and more by increasing public participation to use participatory democracy for community decision-making. Key to this theory is creating structural change that is non-reversible by introducing other structural changes or stabilizing current structures to protect from future changes.

Cook, J. (1994, October 1). Community Development Theory. Retrieved November 18, 2015, from http://extension.missouri.edu/p/MP568
Apply: I mean, duh. I feel one of the critical aspects of the theory is participation being view as a mode of self-help, which is an empowering ideal in the United States. Framing and practicing community organization as a mode of self-help is crucial from attempting to gain status as a community organizer, as our role is that of the backstage manager.

Adapt: My time spent overseas was largely focused on making structural changes and stabilizing other structural changes in an attempt to create order in an area of unrest. Using community development theory while working internationally can also help to reduce the paternalistic feel and help to prevent exploitation of the area for capitalist gain.

For more reading on community development theory, see: http://communityandtheories650.blogspot.com/

International Dependence Models

1.       International Dependence Models

Define: This model states that underdevelopment exists in "Third World" countries due to the influence of multinational corporations and developed countries.

Source: file:///C:/Users/aalbers/Downloads/9789812872470-c2.pdf

Apply: On the community level, this phenomenon can be seen among workers who are paid very little in a developing country, and the multi-national corporations which employ these workers are making a large profit. The worker is left with little to spend or reinvest into his/her own community; the profits instead are made in the developed country.

Adapt: This theory describes underdeveloped countries as dependent on developed nations, financially. And while the developing countries count on the developed countries for resources, investment, and jobs, the developing country exports the products and services they provide at low cost to the developed countries. The developed countries then sell these products for a profit, and the developing country is left in the dust - not benefiting from the partnership.

Triangular Theory of Love

Definition: The triangular theory of love was developed by psychologist Robert Sternberg; it suggests that "true" love has three main components: intimacy, passion, and commitment, each of which he illustrated as a point on an equilateral triangle. Sternberg suggested that healthy relationships may consist of any two of the three points of the triangle, and that  different stages of love can be described as different points between the three angles. A relationship consisting of only one point of the triangle is, he suggested, less likely to last than a relationship consisting of two or three points of the triangle.

Application: This theory is often used to help partners navigate challenging changes in their relationships; by demonstrating that their current position is merely a shift on the triangle, rather than a loss of intimacy, couples can understand their relationship as something in flux and temporal, while also stable. 

Adaptation: The triangular theory of love can also relate to community development; as we work with a community on a specific project, we may go through different phases of motivation- the excitement which sparks a fire for an idea is as necessary as the sustained commitment to see a project through a difficult period, say a lack of funding, although it comes from a different place. For a community project to be created and sustained, the people working on it must have more than just passion, just tangible skills, or just a sense of solidarity; they must have a combination of the three. 

References: 

Sternberg, Robert J. (2004). "A Triangular Theory of Love". In Reis, H. T.; Rusbult, C. E. Close Relationships. New York: Psychology Press. p. 258. ISBN 0863775950.

Theory of Coordination Failure

1.       Theory of Coordination Failure

Define: The theory of coordination failure is an economic development theory which describes when the market fails to coordinate complementary activities.

Source: file:///C:/Users/aalbers/Downloads/9789812872470-c2.pdf

Apply: In the case of development activities, activities must be coordinated and timed to occur in a sequence which makes the actions the most productive. This same principle is important outside of economic development activities; for example, planning availability of human capital, weather, communications, and so on when planning an important community event. 

Adapt: This theory could also be applied to larger corporate business, in which investments are coordinated based on market movement for the purposes of generating the largest return. 

Berger and Luckmann: The Social Construction of Reality

Ah, a return to why nothing really matters.

Define: "Society is a human product. Society is an objective reality. Man is a social product." - Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann

Source: Robbins, S., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. (2012). Contemporary human behavior theory: A critical perspective for social work (3rd ed., p. 329). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Apply: It is up to us to define the life in which we live and to assign value to our lives. Currently, our society values the well-being of the economy of the well-being of other humans; in a recent class, a student commented that material reparations to persons the U.S. has harmed through domestic and international policy would bankrupt our country. As community organizers and very privileged individuals in the U of M system, we must recognize the impact that our country's policies have had on today's landscape of material ownership (cars, land, houses, etc.).

Adapt: This is part of raising the human populations' collective conscious to treat each other, animals, and the world better. This transcends all fields of study and work, becoming a human issue that must be recognized for the continuity of life on earth.

Dualism

Definition: Dualism refers to the philosophical principal within a given category there consists two oppositional or binary parts. 

Application: A common example of dualism is the archetypal categorization of a woman as either a "saint" or a "whore"; the two states of being are fundamentally opposed, and it is impossible to simultaneously be both (or neither).

Adaptation: As community developers working towards building more just and healthy communities, it can be tempting to adopt dualistic thinking and classify community members, clients, or partners as categorically "needing, worthy and good" and adversaries as "greedy, undeserving and bad." However, such thinking erases and ignores the complex realities of all people and communities. By using such one-dimensional thinking, we risk ignore opportunities to develop allies, as well as refusing chances for growth through constructive criticism.

Dualistic Development Theory

Dualistic Development Theory 

Define: Dualistic development theory recognizes the divergences that exist and which are growing between people of means and people living in poverty. 

web.uvic.ca/~ramanik/320s/chapter4.ppt

Apply: Recognizing the impact of this theory in working to develop communities is key; by recognizing the disparities which exist in a community, and the likelihood that these disparities will grow, organizers and residents can begin to address these disparities through action in community development. 

Adapt: Dualistic development could also be applied to policy work, particularly in relation to policies that affect those living in poverty in America. From making decisions on the minimum wage - or a living wage - to Affirmative Action policies, all can be affected when considering the dualistic development theory.

Essentialism

Definition: Essentialism is the idea that within any object, group or identity, there is are a set of inherent, immutable characteristics which constitute group identity. 

Application: Essentialism has been critiqued by feminist scholars who point out that there is no inherent, shared and universal experience which collectively defines all women. 

Adaptation: As community developers, we must resist the urge to make collective, essentialist conclusions about the communities we work with. For instance, not every person in a low-income community will share the same sets of negative experiences with the police. Making these sorts of overarching generalizations about the members of specific groups or communities, although politically useful, can alienate and marginalize those members whose experiences are not being represented. 

References:

 Morton, T. A.; Hornsey, M. J.; Postmes, T. (2009). "Shifting ground: The variable use of essentialism in contexts of inclusion and exclusion.". British Journal of Social Psychology (1): 35–59.

Small World Theory

Definition: Small world theory is the idea that amongst any two people, there are likely to be some overlapping social networks. (Also called the "six degrees of separation theory.")

Application: Research has shown that people are more likely to have positive, trusting feelings towards you if you are able to connect over a common acquaintance.

Adaptation: As community developers, the more people we know in a community, the greater our social capital in that community. If we are able to build numerous relationships with people who can vouch for our trustworthiness, we will be able to extend our social networks more quickly.

References:

Milgram, S. (1967) The Small-World Problem. Psychology Today (May), 62-67.

Emancipatory Action Research

Define: Emancipatory Action Research (EAR) is described as creating "theory in action and action from theory" (p. 78) and involves creating critical public spaces that break down hegemony and rebuild structures to more equally distribute power. EAR “is overtly committed to social justice” through an active process of action and reflection (Ledwith, 2005)

Apply: A community developer decides to apply EAR to a community’s need for better sidewalk maintenance. Instead of identifying the solution himself, the community developer engages the community in a co-creation process. Throughout the work, the group is committed to asking a series of questions that raise their consciousness about how the work contributes to social justice. These include questioning the approach and how it fits in with the values of community development, identifying power structures and how they come into play, constantly reflecting on who the research will benefit, and articulating how the research contributes to social/environmental justice, and identifying ways the research reflects the diversity of the community.

Adapt: A physician conducting clinical trials of a new drug decides to apply EAR principles to the work. She asks the critical questions, in particular seeking to understand what community the research population is from and how power imbalances might have contributed to their willingness to participate. She also considers how the funding for the research came from the drug company itself and how this might impact a presentation of the findings. In applying EAR the physician is committed to asking deeper questions and challenging the status quo.

Source: 
Ledwith, M. (2005) Community Development: A Critical Approach. Chicago, IL: The Policy Press.

Elite Theory

Elite Theory

Definition: " the generalization that nearly all political power is held by a relatively small and wealthy group of people sharing similar values and interests and mostly coming from relatively similar privileged backgrounds." It examines how the power elite can dictate goals within systems. (Field and Higley, 1980)

Application: This theory is important within social work and community development because it examines PODS. Understanding the privilege power brings to a few elite and how it can be problematic for the larger majority. This power dynamic can be seen on all levels including the community level. 

Adaptation: A key example of elite theory is within the American economic system where that 1% controls a lot of American affairs including American politics. This is very problematic because only their voices are begin heard because of the amount of money they have. 

Confirmation Bias

Definition: Confirmation bias is a theory which describes the psychological inclination to see evidence which supports our theory, and to ignore or avoid evidence which contradicts it.

Application: Confirmation bias is often an issue in police investigations, in which officers will (unconsciously) selectively see evidence that supports their pre-conceived theory of a case, and not see evidence which contradicts their theory.

Adaptation: Confirmation bias is a significant issue when conducting research or evaluation in a community development capacity. For instance, if we have a strong emotional investment in a community development organization, our evaluation of the program may unintentionally avoid any evidence that the program is not effective in achieving its outcomes. Because of this tendency, it is important for evaluators and researchers to acknowledge their biases and consider their impact on the evaluation results.

References:

Fischhoff, B. and Beyth-Marom, R. (1983). Hypothesis evaluation from a Bayesian perspective. Psychological Review, 90, 239-260.

Structural Strain Theory

Structural Strain Theory

Definition: The theory is apart of the functionalist perspective on deviance, it explains if an individual does not have the means needed to obtain cultural goals it can lead to deviant behavior. (Robert Morton)

Application: It can help in understanding some of the issues going in within a community like crime and low educational attainment. If you can understand what is the root cause of "deviant behavior" or community issues then you ca begin to work towards a solution.

Adaptation: This theory can be used in criminology, sociology and  psychology when working with individuals who may have been deemed deviant and helping to get to the root cause or at least understanding the cause of such behaviors.

Black Identity Development Theory

Define: Black Identity Development Theory is a stage based model of identity development focused on the social construct of understanding one’s Blackness. Individuals begin without an understanding of race and progress along an oscillating path of rejection and acceptance of Blackness before developing an integrated sense of a Black self-independent of the perceptions of others (Jackson, 1976).

Apply: A white community developer is hoping to work with a neighborhood group that is predominately Black and wants to improve employment rates in the community. Instead of immediately diving into organizing, the community developer takes time to assess how the neighborhood understands their Black identity. Since the group is predominately interested in having Black individuals work together to solve this problem and is not interested in working with white people to solve the problem, he decides to step away from the project. Instead the community developer works with his organization to identify a Black social worker who can work with the community. 

Adapt: A higher educational professional working with Black students would acknowledge that students have different developmental understandings of their identity and provide opportunities that challenge a support a range of students. This might include developing social events to build community with other Black students or facilitating a workshop for a coalition of student from multiple racial backgrounds to come together from across campus to advocate for social justice. 

Source: 
Jackson, B. (1976). Black identity development. In L.H. Golubchick and B. Persky (Eds), Urban Social, and Educational Issues, (pp.158-164). Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt.